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Austria and Prussia were once part of the Holy Roman Empire, which encompassed the bulk of present territories of Germany, Austria, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Slovenia, northern Italy and western Poland. The two nations were the most powerful German states in the Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries and had engaged in a struggle for supremacy among smaller German states. This rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and the abolition of the German Confederation. Austria was separated from Germany and the German Confederation was dissolved, with the Kingdom of Prussia leading the German Empire from 1866 to 1871.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for separation | Austria was annexed into Nazi Germany in 1938 |
| Austria was excluded from the Prussian-dominated German Empire in 1871 | |
| Prussia and Austria were two powerful member states of the German Confederation | |
| Prussia and Austria had a history of conflict, including the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Austro-Prussian War (1866) | |
| Prussia and Austria competed for influence in the German states | |
| Prussia and Austria had different administrative structures and centralization levels | |
| Prussia and Austria had distinct military capabilities and technologies | |
| Prussia and Austria had separate royal families and rulers | |
| Prussia and Austria had different geographical territories and populations |
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What You'll Learn
Prussia's rise to power
Prussia's power grew under the leadership of Frederick William, who established an absolute monarchy in Brandenburg-Prussia and emphasised the importance of a strong military. In 1708, about a third of the population of East Prussia died during the Great Northern War plague outbreak, and the kingdom was recovering from the devastation of the Thirty Years' War. Despite these setbacks, Prussia continued to expand its territory and influence. In 1715, Prussia joined a coalition against the Swedish Empire, gaining Swedish Pomerania east of the River Oder in the Treaty of Stockholm.
The new Prussian king Frederick II (1740-1786), also known as Frederick the Great, further enhanced Prussia's power and prestige. He invaded Silesia, a rich and advanced province of the Habsburg monarchy, in 1740, precipitating the War of the Austrian Succession and the Silesian Wars with Austria. Prussia emerged victorious, securing Silesia in the Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Prussia held its own against Austria, Russia, France, and Sweden, solidifying its dominant position among the German states.
Prussia's rise continued in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, acquiring new territories, including the coal-rich Ruhr region. By the 19th century, Prussia had become a major power in Europe, shaping the history of Germany and playing a pivotal role in the unification of Germany in 1871. Prussia formed the German Empire by uniting the German states, excluding Austria, and became a key constituent of this empire until its dissolution in 1918.
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Austria-Hungary Compromise
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states with a single monarch. This ended an 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary, which Emperor Franz Joseph had instituted after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Hungary was restored, and the old historic constitution of the Kingdom was reinstated.
The Compromise was the result of two severe defeats for the Austrian Empire in the 1860s: its loss in the Second Italian War of Independence, which broke its dominion over a large part of Northern Italy, and its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which led to the dissolution of the German Confederation and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. These defeats gave the Hungarians the opportunity to remove the shackles of absolutist rule. The central government in Vienna, realizing the need to compromise with Hungary in order to retain its great power status, began negotiations with Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák.
The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws, a series of reform laws based on 12 points that established modern civil and political rights and economic and societal reforms in Hungary, were still valid. They conceded, however, that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defence were "common" to both Austria and Hungary. The Austrian emperor Francis Joseph gave Hungary full internal autonomy together with a responsible ministry, and in return, Hungary agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, thus maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad.
Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian half of the empire, often referred to as 'Cisleithania', consisted of seventeen historical crown lands and had a total area of 300,004 km². The Hungarian half, referred to as 'Transleithania', was dominated by the Kingdom of Hungary, with the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, which had been united with Hungary since the Middle Ages, and the free city of Rijeka (Fiume in Italian). The Hungarian half had an area of 325,411 km².
The two halves of the empire were treated as separate states, with their own constitutions, governments, and parliaments, and their citizens were treated as foreigners in the other half. They were united by their common army and foreign policy, with the monarch personifying the unity of the empire. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise transformed the Habsburg Monarchy into a powerful state, favourable to the high cultural development and material welfare of the Danubian peoples.
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German Confederation
The German Confederation was formed after the Napoleonic Wars, and its creation brought about the issue of unifying the German states, which caused the German revolutions of 1848–1849. Representatives from all states attempted to unify under their constitution, but attempts to create a federation remained unsuccessful. The German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when the Austro-Prussian War broke out between its two most powerful member states.
Prussia and Austria had dominated German affairs, and their tension was often referred to as "the German dualism", meaning that each had become so powerful that only the other could keep it in some sort of check. Prussia, which had increased in size and prestige, was joined by Bavaria and Saxony in the empire, as well as by France and Spain. The Prussian armies, despite being outnumbered by Austria's forces, were superior and better-led. The Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) confirmed the Prussian conquest of Silesia.
Prussia's rise to power was especially notable during the reign of Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great. Frederick was instrumental in starting the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), holding his ground against Austria, Russia, France, and Sweden, and establishing Prussia's dominant role among the German states. Prussia's victory over Austria at the Battle of Burkersdorf further confirmed its major role within the German states and established the country as a European great power.
After the German Confederation collapsed, Prussia was the driving force behind the North German Confederation, which was formed in 1866 and transformed in 1871 into the unified German Empire. Prussia played a significant role in the unification of Germany in 1871 and was a major constituent of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. The German Empire successfully unified all of the German states aside from Austria and Switzerland under Prussian hegemony.
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Austrian throne succession
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) was a major European conflict fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. The war was sparked by the death of the Habsburg emperor Charles VI in 1740, without a male heir, which raised the question of the succession to the Austrian throne. Charles was succeeded by Joseph in 1711, who issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, confirming the principle of female inheritance. However, this was disputed by rival claimants who questioned the right of Charles' daughter, Maria Theresa, to succeed him.
Maria Theresa's right to succeed her father, Emperor Charles VI, as ruler of the Habsburg monarchy, was supported by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Hanover, collectively known as the Pragmatic Allies. On the other hand, France, Prussia, and Bavaria saw the situation as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power. Prussia, in particular, sought to exploit the succession struggle to acquire Habsburg possessions and weaken Austrian power. Led by King Frederick II of Prussia, Prussia invaded the Austrian province of Silesia in 1740, marking the beginning of the conflict.
The War of the Austrian Succession was not just an internal struggle over the constitutional balance in the empire but also part of a broader international conflict. France and England, for instance, fought out their rivalry in western and southern Europe, North America, and India. The war was fought across multiple theatres, including Central Europe, Italy, and the Austrian Netherlands, as well as naval conflicts in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Peace settlement that ended the war brought the return of Madras to the British company in exchange for Louisbourg in Canada. However, hostilities continued in India and Canada, and tensions between Prussia and Austria remained high, leading to further conflicts in the following years. The war also had significant geopolitical consequences, such as the realignment known as the Diplomatic Revolution, where Austria and France ended their long-standing rivalry, and Prussia allied with Great Britain.
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Unification of German states
The unification of German states was a process of building the first German nation-state, with federal features, based on the concept of a "Lesser Germany" or "Kleindeutsche Lösung" (a Germany without the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire or its German-speaking parts). This idea of a "smaller" Germany was in conflict with the notion of a "greater" Germany, which advocated for the inclusion of the Kingdom of Austria. The unification of German states was marked by economic success, political failure, and diplomatic tensions in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.
During the mid-eighteenth century, a rivalry emerged between the Holy Roman Empire's two largest and most powerful states: the Kingdom of Austria, ruled by the Habsburgs, and the Kingdom of Prussia, ruled by the Hohenzollerns. This rivalry, known as "German dualism," set the stage for the unification process. Prussia, which had increased in size and prestige, challenged Austria for leadership over the German peoples. The German Confederation, established after the Napoleonic Wars, endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through Habsburg leadership, but failed to account for Prussia's growing strength.
The first efforts towards unification came in 1834 with the establishment of the Zollverein customs union, which freed trade between most German states, excluding Austria. This economic unification brought liberal politics into German nationalism. The Revolution of 1848 further propelled these liberal ideals, with revolutionaries advocating for freedom of the press, a national militia, a national German parliament, and trial by jury. The Frankfurt Assembly drafted a constitution modelled on the French Revolution of 1789 and offered the crown of a unified Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia.
The process of unification gained momentum in the mid-nineteenth century, with Prussia playing a dominant role. Prussia's military successes in regional wars, such as the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. The North German Confederation Treaty of 1866 established the North German Confederation, a military alliance dominated by Prussia. This alliance, which included most of the south German states, formed the basis for the unification of Germany. The process symbolically concluded in 1871 with the proclamation of the German Empire, also known as the German Reich, consisting of 25 member states and led by the Kingdom of Prussia.
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Frequently asked questions
The dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864.
Prussia defeated Austria and annexed Schleswig-Holstein. This established Prussia as a major power within the German states and led to the collapse of the German Confederation in 1866.
The war was a significant step towards the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony, excluding Austria and Switzerland. This process was completed in 1871 with the formation of the German Empire, which lasted until its dissolution in 1918.
The idea of unifying Austria and Germany, known as the "Anschluss," gained support after Austria was excluded from the unification of Germany in 1871. In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria, incorporating it into a "Greater Germany."
