Lexi Webster
From the 17th century onwards, Europeans began migrating to America and Australia, with the peak of migration occurring in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. During this period, over 60 million Europeans emigrated, with 71% going to North America, 21% to Latin America, and 7% to Australia. There were various push and pull factors that encouraged migration, including economic and social problems in Europe, crop failure, land and job shortages, starvation, and the perception of better economic opportunities and personal freedom in America and Australia.
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What You'll Learn
Economic opportunities in America
From the late 15th century to the early 20th century, more than 60 million Europeans migrated to the American continent. This mass immigration was driven by a variety of factors, including economic opportunities in America.
During this period, Europe was undergoing significant economic and social changes. The expansion of industrialization and economic modernization led to a surplus of labour in Europe, while technological advances made travel between Europe and America faster and safer. At the same time, America was experiencing economic growth and had an abundance of land and a shortage of labour. This created a range of economic opportunities that attracted European migrants.
Many Europeans were facing poverty, starvation, and agricultural crises due to crop failures, land shortages, and rising taxes. In contrast, America was seen as a land of economic opportunity, offering the prospect of owning land and establishing farms or plantations. The availability of land and the demand for labour in America meant that immigrants could often find better-paying jobs than those available in Europe. This was particularly true for skilled workers and craftsmen, who were in high demand in America.
The perception of America as a land of economic opportunity was further enhanced by the circulation of information in the 19th century. With improved communication systems, word of America's economic prospects spread throughout Europe, encouraging migration. Additionally, the industrialisation of the United States created new job opportunities in factories and urban centres, attracting immigrants seeking employment and improved economic conditions.
The impact of European immigration on the American economy has been a subject of debate. While some argue that immigrants take jobs from American-born workers, research suggests that immigration is a net positive for the economy. Immigrants not only fill critical positions but also foster job growth by consuming goods and services and starting new businesses. They contribute to overall economic growth by expanding the labour force and increasing consumer spending. Additionally, the children of immigrants tend to be more educated and have a positive impact on academic achievement in schools.
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Religious freedom
Religious persecution was a significant factor in the migration of Europeans to America and Australia. In Europe, Catholics and Protestants often persecuted or forbade each other's religions. Those who refused to compromise their religious convictions and faced persecution fled to the British colonies in North America, which were established as "plantations of religion". The New England colonies, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were among the places where settlers could worship God according to their own beliefs.
The conviction that uniformity of religion was necessary in society led to the persecution of nonconformists, who might be executed as heretics. This persecution was often bloody and implacable and was carried out by both Catholics and Protestants. For example, in 1554, David van der Leyen and Levina Ghyselins, Dutch Anabaptists or Mennonites, were executed by Catholic authorities in Ghent. Similarly, in the 1600s, Jesuit priests in England, such as Brian Cansfield and Ralph Corbington, were beaten, imprisoned, and hanged by Protestant authorities.
The search for religious freedom was a motivation for migration to America even before the arrival of the Mayflower in 1620. In 1564, a group of French Huguenot (Protestant) colonists established Fort Caroline in what is now Florida, but they were wiped out by the Spanish, who sought to suppress the spread of Lutheran doctrine. Despite the ideal of religious freedom, America's history with religion is complex and often violent. Christian religious groups played a significant role in the British colonies, and most attempted to enforce strict religious observance through colony governments and local town rules. There was also a belief that there was one true religion and that civil authorities had a duty to impose it, which led to the persecution of dissenters.
The Virginia Act for Establishing Religious Freedom, passed in 1786, was a significant step towards protecting religious freedom in America. The act, based on Jefferson's ideas, aimed to protect people of all faiths, including Jews, Christians, Muslims, Hindus, and Infidels. This sentiment was echoed by President Obama, who affirmed America's commitment to religious freedom and tolerance for people of all faiths.
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Political persecution
Europe to America:
During the colonial period, religious persecution played a significant role in migration to America, particularly for Protestant groups such as the Puritans, Pilgrims, and Huguenots. These groups sought religious freedom and the ability to practice their faith without fear of persecution. The American narrative of religious liberty attracted those facing religious intolerance in their homelands.
In the 19th century, migration from Europe to America intensified, with people from all corners of the continent embarking on the journey. Among them were Irish migrants escaping British repression of Catholics. The Irish sought prosperity and freedom from religious and political persecution.
Eastern European Jews also faced harsh treatment, discrimination, and persecution within the Russian Empire, which encompassed parts of present-day Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, and Poland. Violent pogroms in the 1880s destroyed Jewish communities and led to the migration of approximately 2 to 3 million Jews to the United States between 1880 and the early 1920s.
Europe to Australia:
The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 played a significant role in the country's demographic changes. The gold rush attracted people from the British Isles, continental Europe, North America, and China, contributing to the rapid population growth in regions like New South Wales and Victoria.
While the gold rush was a significant pull factor, political persecution also played a role in migration to Australia. The White Australia policy, in place from the 1890s to the 1950s, aimed to exclude non-European immigrants. However, during World War II, this policy was relaxed, and Australia accepted refugees fleeing political repression and military regimes in their home countries. Examples include refugees from Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay seeking asylum from dictatorships in South America during the 1970s.
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Post-war immigration to Australia
In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the Australian Prime Minister, Ben Chifley, established the federal Department of Immigration to administer a large-scale immigration program. The Chifley government commissioned a report that found Australia was in urgent need of a larger population for the purposes of defence and development, and recommended a 1% annual increase in population through immigration. This policy was summarised in the slogan "populate or perish".
Arthur Calwell, Australia's first Minister for Immigration, promoted mass immigration. Calwell looked beyond Britain for new migrants, including those displaced from their homes in the Baltic region due to the war, who became known as the 'beautiful Balts'. Australia also began accepting migrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as temporary migrants from the Middle East and Asia in the late 1940s and early 1950s. This shift in policy was influenced by Melbourne economist WD 'Bill' Forsyth, who argued that immigration should be linked to the development of urban industry rather than just the rural sector.
The post-war immigration program was also supported by financial assistance agreements between the Australian government and various international organisations. The Assisted Passage Migration Scheme, also known as the 'Ten-Pound Pom' scheme, was introduced in 1945 to encourage migration from Britain, and by 1947, over 400,000 British people had signed up.
The influx of immigrants during this period transformed Australian society and is considered a defining moment in the country's history, marking the birth of multicultural Australia.
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Population growth in Europe
The demographic transition in Europe was characterised by a significant decrease in infant and child mortality, which generated substantial population growth. Improvements in living conditions, including a more balanced diet and advancements in preventive medicine, contributed to this decline in mortality rates. The discovery of pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1864, for instance, had a profound impact on reducing infant mortality by ensuring safer milk consumption.
Industrialization and economic modernization played a crucial role in Europe's population growth. The Industrial Revolution brought about an increase in food production and improvements in food distribution through steam hauling. This led to better access to food and a more consistent food supply for Europeans. Additionally, the massive and ongoing use of fossil fuels led to increasing returns on human labour, further contributing to population growth.
However, the population growth also exerted pressure on the agricultural sector. With more people depending on the same amount of land for survival, many Europeans faced starvation. For example, in the 1840s, about one million Irish perished due to a combination of agricultural plague and economic disaster, leading to a wave of emigration.
The demographic transition in Europe was not uniform across the continent. While mortality rates declined in Scandinavian countries throughout the 19th century, countries in north-western and central Europe witnessed a stabilisation of mortality rates from the 1820s to the 1870s due to intense urbanization and the negative impacts of the Industrial Revolution on health and living conditions.
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Frequently asked questions
People migrated from Europe to America due to a variety of push and pull factors. Some of the push factors included crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, famine, and starvation. Pull factors included the perception of America as the land of economic opportunity, personal freedom, and relief from political and religious persecution.
People migrated from Europe to Australia for a variety of reasons. Initially, Britain transported convicts from its overcrowded prisons to the Australian colonies. Later, many Europeans migrated to Australia after World War II due to the belief that increasing the population would protect them from another invasion.
Many immigrants entered the United States through East Coast facilities, with more than 70% entering through New York City. Wealthier immigrants began migrating to Australia by air from the 1930s, but ocean liners remained the main form of transportation until the 1960s.
