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The invasion and annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany were part of Hitler's expansionist policies and his desire for living space. Germany's annexation of Austria in March 1938 was the result of Austrian dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain and interference from German National Socialists. Hitler's interest in Czechoslovakia was largely economic, as he sought to address Germany's lack of raw materials and inability to feed its population. The invasion of Czechoslovakia began with the annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938 and ended with the invasion of the remaining Czech parts in March 1939, despite the signing of the Munich Pact in 1938, which aimed to prevent further German aggression.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Germany's invasion of Austria | 11-13 March 1938 |
| Event name | The Anschluss |
| Reason for invasion | To unite all Germans into one nation |
| Reason for invasion | Austria was economically dependent on lands previously held by Austria-Hungary |
| Reason for invasion | Hitler's expansionist policies |
| Reason for invasion | To gain control of key military defences in Czechoslovakia |
| Date of Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia | 15 March 1939 |
| Reason for invasion | To gain access to Czechoslovakia's resources |
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's ultimatum to Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg
On 12 February 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg met with Hitler in an attempt to improve worsening relations between their two countries. However, Hitler surprised Schuschnigg with an ultimatum, effectively demanding the handing over of power to the Austrian Nazis.
Hitler's ultimatum to Schuschnigg was set to expire at noon on 11 March, but was extended by two hours. The ultimatum demanded that Schuschnigg hand over all power to the Austrian Nazis or face an invasion. Without waiting for an answer, Hitler had already signed the order to send troops into Austria at one o'clock.
Hitler's demands included that Schuschnigg call off the plebiscite, and that Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas appoint Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new Austrian chancellor. If these demands were not met, the German military would invade Austria. Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence in the hours following the ultimatum, but realising that neither France nor Britain was willing to offer assistance, he resigned on the evening of 11 March.
Hitler's ultimatum was the culmination of years of political instability in Austria, where the rise of the Nazis in 1933 had further destabilized the country. Austrian Nazis gained supporters in 1931–1932 as Hitler’s popularity in Germany increased, and this was only exacerbated after Hitler was appointed German chancellor in January 1933. Schuschnigg's predecessor, Engelbert Dollfuss, had transformed Austria from a democratic republic into a right-wing authoritarian regime, but he was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Schuschnigg continued many of his predecessor's authoritarian policies, but he was strongly opposed to Hitler's goal to absorb Austria into the Third Reich and wished for it to remain independent.
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The Anschluss and its significance for Hitler
The Anschluss, which took place in March 1938, was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by the Nazi German regime. The term is derived from the German word 'Anschluss', which means 'connection' or 'joining'. The Anschluss saw the annexation of Austria, which became the first country to fall under Nazi Germany's expansionist agenda.
The Anschluss was of significant importance to Hitler as it represented a key step in his plan for a 'war of expansion' and the realisation of his desire for 'living space'. Austria had been a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed in 1918 at the end of World War I. Many Austrians considered themselves German and spoke German as their primary language. Some Austrians felt that their country could not survive economically without the lands previously held by the Empire, and there were hopes to restore a form of the empire or unite with Germany. These sentiments played into Hitler's ambitions of uniting all Germans into one nation.
Hitler's aggressive foreign policy, as outlined in the Hossbach Memorandum, identified Austria and Czechoslovakia as primary targets for expansion. In the case of Austria, Hitler threatened an immediate invasion, demanding that Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg grant amnesty to convicted Nazi criminals and appoint the Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Minister of the Interior and Security. Schuschnigg eventually resigned, and Seyss-Inquart was appointed Chancellor. Hitler then ordered German troops to cross the Austrian border, and they met with no resistance.
The Anschluss was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, but it also resulted in an outburst of public violence against Austria's Jewish population. The annexation of Austria was a significant step towards Hitler's goal of expanding the German nation and asserting dominance in the region. It also served as a precursor to the invasion of Czechoslovakia, which occurred in March 1939, less than a year after the Anschluss.
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The Austrian Question and Göring's foreign policy notions
The Austrian Question was a significant issue in European politics during the interwar period. It referred to the uncertainty surrounding Austria's political status after the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy at the end of World War I. The issue was closely tied to the nationalist aspirations of ethnic Germans living in Austria and the desire to unite all Germans into one state, which was a core tenet of Nazi ideology.
Hermann Göring, a leading Nazi figure and close associate of Adolf Hitler, played a crucial role in shaping and implementing Nazi foreign policy. Göring's notions on foreign policy were deeply influenced by Nazi ideology and Hitler's expansionist ambitions. He shared Hitler's belief in the need for German territorial expansion to create a "Greater Germany" and secure Lebensraum (living space) for the German people.
Regarding Austria, Göring supported the idea of annexing Austria into the German Reich. This notion was driven by the belief in Pan-Germanism, which advocated for the unification of all ethnic Germans into a single nation. Austria, with its significant German-speaking population, was seen as a natural target for incorporation into the German state.
In March 1938, Göring played a key role in the annexation of Austria (the Anschluss). He travelled to Austria and pressured Austrian leaders to accept the annexation, using a combination of threats and promises. On March 12, 1938, Austria formally became a part of Nazi Germany, marking a significant step in Hitler's expansionist agenda.
Following the annexation of Austria, Göring's attention, along with that of Hitler, turned to Czechoslovakia. The Nazis sought to incorporate the Sudetenland, a region in northern Czechoslovakia with a substantial ethnic German population. Göring supported the use of aggressive tactics to pressure the Czechoslovak government and its allies, Britain and France, into accepting their demands.
In September 1938, Göring participated in the Munich Conference, where the Munich Pact was signed. The pact effectively handed the Sudetenland to Germany, despite the Czechoslovak government's protests. This represented a significant foreign policy victory for Nazi Germany, as it achieved their territorial goals without military conflict. However, it also demonstrated the appeasement policies of Britain and France, which ultimately failed to prevent Hitler's aggressive ambitions.
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Czechoslovakia's gold and currency reserves
Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia was largely driven by economic factors. Germany had the world's second-largest economy, but its agricultural sector could not feed its population, and there was a shortage of raw materials, which had to be imported. The Four-Year Plan, launched in 1936, aimed to prepare the German economy for "total war" by 1940, but it strained the country's economy by 1937 as Germany had to use its foreign exchange reserves to import food and raw materials.
The annexation of Czechoslovakia offered Germany control of key military defences and access to valuable resources. The Munich Pact of 1938, which handed the Sudetenland to Germany, also gave the Nazi war machine 66% of Czechoslovakia's coal, 70% of its iron and steel, and 70% of its electrical power. This left the Czech nation vulnerable to complete German domination.
On March 15, 1939, German troops entered the remaining Czech parts of Czechoslovakia, seizing the Czechoslovak reserves of gold and hard currency, factories, mines, and weapons. The gold and currency reserves seized in March 1939 were invaluable in alleviating Germany's foreign exchange crisis. The exact amount of gold seized is unclear, but it was significant enough that, in the years following World War II, the American and British governments held onto approximately eighteen tons of Czechoslovak gold for safekeeping, only returning it after political stability in Czechoslovakia was assured. The Czechoslovak gold reserves were created in 1919 and have remained in the reserves of the Czech Central Bank and its predecessors.
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The Munich Pact and its failure
The Munich Pact, also known as the Munich Agreement, was signed on September 30, 1938, by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, French Premier Edouard Daladier, German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. The agreement was reached after an emergency meeting of the major European powers (excluding Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union) in Munich, Germany, on September 29-30, 1938. The pact was an attempt to prevent Germany's imperial aims and avert war by allowing Germany to annex the Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia, a region with a significant ethnic German population.
The Sudetenland was a province in northern Czechoslovakia, bordering Germany. By annexing this region, Germany gained control of key military defences, making the invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia considerably easier. The Munich Pact also had significant economic consequences for Czechoslovakia, as it lost access to important industries, railheads, and junctions, leading to trade losses and unemployment.
Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it would have to submit to the prescribed annexations, and the Czechoslovak government, realising its precarious position, chose to comply. However, less than six months after the pact was signed, Nazi Germany broke the agreement by invading the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia on March 15, 1939. These provinces became known as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and were placed under Nazi rule. This invasion proved the futility of the Munich Pact and demonstrated Hitler's aggressive foreign policy and expansionist ambitions.
The failure of the Munich Pact had far-reaching consequences. It upset Joseph Stalin, who felt that the West had colluded with Hitler to hand over a country in Central Europe, raising concerns that they might do the same with the Soviet Union. This belief led the Soviet Union to reorient its foreign policy towards rapprochement with Germany, resulting in the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939. The invasion of Czechoslovakia also surrounded Poland with German-controlled territories, making it Hitler's next target. Despite Germany's breach of the Munich Pact, there was no immediate military response from the Allies. On September 1, 1939, the Nazis invaded Poland, leading to Britain and France declaring war on Germany shortly after.
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Frequently asked questions
Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia was largely driven by economic factors. Germany had the world's second-largest economy at the time, but its agricultural sector could not feed the population, and there was a shortage of raw materials, which had to be imported. The Four-Year Plan, launched in 1936, aimed to have the German economy ready for "total war" by 1940, but it strained the country's economy. Invading Czechoslovakia gave Germany access to the country's valuable natural resources and put them in a better position geographically to invade Poland.
Germany justified its invasion of Czechoslovakia by asserting that the Sudetenland, a province in northern Czechoslovakia bordering Germany, was populated by ethnic Germans and should be annexed to their "home" country.
Germany's annexation of Austria was the result of several factors, including Austrian dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain, a lack of support from Western democracies, and international instability in the 1930s. The invasion was also driven by Hitler's desire to incorporate Austria into the German Reich, which he saw as a significant step towards expanding his empire.
