Lexi Webster
Austria has a long and complex history, with its own predecessor states dating back to the late Iron Age. Over the centuries, it has been occupied by various groups, including the Hallstatt Celtic culture, the Bavarii, and the Franks. In 1156, Austria became an independent duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, and it remained so until the rise of Napoleon, whose conquest of German-speaking territories led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the emergence of Austria as an empire in its own right. In the 19th century, there were several attempts to unify Germany and Austria, with varying levels of success. In the 20th century, Austria faced social and economic distress, which led to revolutionary activities and a brief union with Germany, known as the Anschluss, which lasted from 1938 to 1945. During this time, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany and lost its independence, becoming a province of Nazi Germany.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Austria's independence from Germany | 996 AD - 1806 |
| 1871 - 1918 | |
| 1955 | |
| Austria's unification with Germany | 1806 - 1871 |
| 1938 | |
| Austria's desire to remain independent | 1938 |
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What You'll Learn
- Austria's independence was threatened by Nazi Germany's annexation in 1938
- Austrians voted in a plebiscite to remain independent in 1938
- Austria was an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire
- Austria's multiethnic empire was a barrier to unification with Germany
- Austria and Germany were separate due to the rise of Napoleon
Austria's independence was threatened by Nazi Germany's annexation in 1938
The idea of the Anschluss, or the unification of Austria and Germany, emerged after the 1871 unification of Germany, which excluded Austrian and German-Austrian participation in the German Empire. Support for the unification of Austria and Germany grew following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, and the subsequent establishment of the Republic of German-Austria. However, the 1919 Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Versailles prohibited the union and the use of the name "German-Austria".
In the lead-up to the annexation, Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg attempted to preserve Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite, or referendum, on the matter. This vote was scheduled for March 13, 1938. However, on March 11, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel the plebiscite and resign. German troops crossed the Austrian border on March 12, unopposed by the Austrian military, and were even welcomed by some Austrians.
On March 13, 1938, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Arthur Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally annexing Austria into Nazi Germany. This marked the end of Austria's independence, as it became a province of Nazi Germany, initially referred to as the "Ostmark". The annexation was followed by pogrom-like violence across Austria, with Jews being targeted, humiliated, and subjected to discriminatory laws and restrictions.
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Austrians voted in a plebiscite to remain independent in 1938
In the lead-up to World War II, Austria was facing a significant Nazi threat. Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite (referendum) on Austrian independence, scheduled for March 13, 1938, to prevent the German annexation of Austria. However, on March 11, 1938, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel the plebiscite and resign.
Hitler was infuriated by the idea of a plebiscite and decided to take action. He presented the Austrian government with a series of ultimatums: Chancellor Schuschnigg had to call off the plebiscite, and Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas had to appoint Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new chancellor. If these demands were not met, Hitler threatened to invade Austria with the German military.
Fearing the invasion, Schuschnigg gave in to Hitler's demands. On the evening of March 11, 1938, he announced the cancellation of the plebiscite on Austrian radio. The next day, propaganda urging voters to support Austrian independence appeared everywhere, even painted on the streets and sidewalks. Despite the cancellation of the plebiscite, German troops occupied Austria on March 12, 1938, and the Nazi government of Austria signed a law proclaiming Austria "a land of the German Reich."
A sham referendum on the annexation (the "Anschluss") was held in German-occupied Austria on April 10, 1938, alongside a similar referendum in Germany. The official result reported 99.73% in favour of the Anschluss, with a 99.71% turnout. However, this referendum was subject to large-scale Nazi propaganda and the abrogation of the voting rights of around 360,000 people (8% of the eligible voting population), including Austrian Jews, Roma, and political opponents.
The Austrian government's initial attempt to hold a plebiscite on independence highlights the desire of many Austrians to remain independent from Nazi Germany. Despite the cancellation of the original plebiscite, the events of 1938 demonstrate the complex and contested nature of Austria's path towards annexation.
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Austria was an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire
The history of Austria is a complex one, with the country and its predecessor states witnessing several changes in sovereignty and governance over the centuries. In the context of the Holy Roman Empire, Austria's status as an independent dominion is an important aspect of its historical trajectory.
Austria's association with the Holy Roman Empire dates back to the early Middle Ages. In the late Iron Age, around 800 BC, the region was occupied by the Hallstatt Celtic culture, which organised as the kingdom of Noricum. By the end of the 1st century BC, the lands south of the Danube became part of the Roman Empire. During the Migration Period in the 6th century, the Bavarii, a Germanic tribe, settled in the region until it was incorporated into the Frankish Empire in the 9th century.
The name "Ostarrîchi" or "Österreich", meaning "Eastern Empire" or "Kingdom of the East", came into use in 996 AD when Austria was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria. This marked the beginning of Austria's transition towards independence within the broader context of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1156, Austria became an independent duchy, and later an archduchy, of the Holy Roman Empire. This elevation in status was formalised through the Privilegium Minus, an instrument issued by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. As a result, Henry II became the first Duke of Austria, establishing his residence in Vienna.
Austria's status as an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire was significant. It enjoyed a degree of autonomy and self-governance while remaining a part of the larger empire. This period also witnessed the dominance of the House of Habsburg and, later, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine in Austria, from 1273 to 1918. The Holy Roman Empire, of which Austria was a part, lasted until its dissolution in 1806. During this time, Austria played a crucial role within the empire, with its history intertwined with that of the broader European context.
However, it is important to note that Austria's desire for independence from Germany in the 20th century, as evident in the events leading up to the Anschluss in 1938, was influenced by a range of complex factors. While Austria had historically enjoyed periods of independence or autonomy, the rise of nationalism and the political climate of the time played a significant role in shaping the country's path. The Austrian Social Democrats, for example, resisted bolshevism and sought to maintain Austria's independence from the German Reich, even as many Austrians identified as both German and Austrian.
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Austria's multiethnic empire was a barrier to unification with Germany
Austria's multiethnic empire was a significant barrier to unification with Germany in the 19th century. The Austrian Empire included many Slavs and non-Germans in addition to Austrian Germans, which made unification with Germany challenging. The large non-German population in regions like Bohemia posed a challenge to incorporating Austria into a new German union.
The issue of Austria's multiethnic empire was a key point of contention during the 1848 Paulskirche debates on German unification. The only feasible solution to this impasse would have been the dissolution of the Austrian empire, which the Habsburg emperor did not permit. As a result, pan-German activists in the 19th century often viewed the Austrian empire as an impediment to their aspirations for uniting the entire German cultural sphere.
Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, played a crucial role in excluding Austria from unification with Germany. He pursued a policy of uniting the German states under Prussian leadership while marginalizing Austria. Bismarck's reluctance to incorporate large numbers of Catholic Germans under Prussian control, due to his Lutheran beliefs and the anti-Catholic prejudices prevalent in Protestant Germany, further contributed to Austria's exclusion.
Additionally, the domestic complexities within Austria, including the presence of the powerful Habsburg dynasty, made it challenging for Bismarck to exert influence and include Austria in a unified German state. The potential fallout from leaving Hungary and the Balkans to their devices, inviting interference from the Russian Empire, was also a factor that Bismarck had to consider. As a result, Austria's multiethnic empire, coupled with complex political dynamics, hindered its unification with Germany during this period.
It is worth noting that Austria did briefly unite with Germany under the Nazi regime from 1938 to 1945, known as the Anschluss. However, this unification was achieved through German aggression and annexation, and Austria lost its independence, becoming a province of Nazi Germany.
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Austria and Germany were separate due to the rise of Napoleon
The histories of Austria and Germany are deeply intertwined, with both countries sharing cultural and linguistic similarities. However, their paths diverged, in part, due to the rise of Napoleon in the early 19th century.
Napoleon's invasion of Central Europe and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars had a profound impact on the region's political landscape. One significant consequence was the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), which had encompassed various German-speaking territories, including Austria. With the fall of the HRE, Austria emerged as an independent empire, no longer under the umbrella of the HRE. This marked a pivotal moment in the separation of Austria and Germany.
The creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon further solidified this separation. The Confederation, which included the remaining German states outside of the HRE, fell under the influence of Napoleon's French Empire. Austria, however, remained independent of this Confederation, further distinguishing it from the German states under Napoleon's control.
During this period, Prussia also rose to prominence as a rival power to Austria within the German context. Prussia and Austria had competing visions for the future of the German states. Prussia sought to centralize power and exclude Austria from decision-making, while Austria proposed a union dominated by the Habsburgs. This rivalry contributed to the emergence of two separate paths for Austria and Germany.
In the post-Napoleonic era, the idea of Pan-Germanism gained traction, and there were debates among nationalists about whether a unified German Reich should include Austria. Ultimately, when Bismarck drove unification in 1871, he decided against including Austria, opting for a two-state formula. This decision was influenced by religious differences, with Germany having a slight Protestant majority and Austria being predominantly Catholic.
In summary, the rise of Napoleon and the subsequent political upheaval in Central Europe contributed significantly to the separation of Austria and Germany. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, and the emergence of Prussia as a rival power all played a role in setting Austria and Germany on distinct paths.
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Frequently asked questions
In 1938, Germany annexed Austria in what was known as the Anschluss, which was the Nazi German regime’s first act of territorial aggression and expansion. The Austrian chancellor, Schuschnigg, hoped to defeat this by announcing a plebiscite to decide in favor of Austrian independence. However, the Nazis wanted to get rid of any traces of a separate Austrian identity and Austria was no longer an independent country after the annexation.
In 1862, there were efforts like the German reform club, which aimed for an Austrian-ruled Germany. In 1863, Austria suggested the Frankfurt reform act for a not-quite-unified state of only Germans, under mostly Austrian control. The Austro-Prussia war was also fought over this subject, with Austria trying to prevent Prussia from turning the North and Western states into a single Prussian-ruled state.
In the revolutions of 1848, a single greater Germany was possible. The German national congress elected an Austrian imperial regent of Germany, who was also viceroy of Austria at the time. However, Austria and Prussia had issues with this arrangement, as Prussia wanted states' rights while Austria wanted all states to be subsumed under Austrian rule.
