Lyla Lindsey
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states with a single monarch. This compromise was a constitutional agreement that restored territorial integrity to Hungary and gave it more real internal independence than it had since 1526. The citizens of each half of the empire were treated as foreigners in the other half, and each had its own constitution, government, and parliament. The dual monarchy was formed in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War and wars of independence by Hungary in opposition to Habsburg rule.
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The Compromise of 1867 was preceded by a series of conflicts and political shifts. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 resulted in an 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule by Emperor Franz Joseph. The Second Italian War of Independence and the Austro-Prussian War further weakened the Austrian Empire, leading to a financial crisis and the need for reconciliation with Hungary. Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák played a crucial role in advocating for a modified union under the Habsburgs, which eventually led to the Compromise.
The Compromise restored the territorial integrity and political status of the Kingdom of Hungary, granting it full internal independence and autonomy. Hungary agreed that for purposes of war and foreign affairs, the empire would remain a single great state, maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad. To coordinate foreign affairs and defence, common ministries were established under joint ministers, with a third minister responsible for finance. The Austrian and Hungarian states became co-equal in power, conducting unified diplomatic and defence policies.
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was not universally accepted and faced opposition within Hungary. Many Hungarians considered it a betrayal of their interests and the achievements of the 1848 reforms. The parliamentary life of Hungary from 1867 to 1918 was marked by conflict between supporters and opponents of the Compromise. Despite these tensions, the Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy that endured until World War I, shaping the political landscape of Central Europe during this period.
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The Hungarian Revolution of 1848
In the lead-up to the revolution, Hungary found itself in a state of political and social turmoil. The country was part of the Austrian Empire, ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy, which had implemented a policy of "stability" that favoured reactionary absolutism. However, beneath the surface, a strong undercurrent of discontent was brewing, particularly among the liberal revolutionaries who espoused modern liberal values and sought to distance themselves from the "feudal type" of monarchy.
The spark that ignited the revolution came on March 3, 1848, when Lajos Kossuth, a prominent Hungarian reformer and member of the Hungarian Diet in Pressburg (now Bratislava), delivered a fiery speech demanding political co-determination and a constitutional monarchy. Kossuth's speech galvanised his supporters, who transformed the Diet into a Hungarian national assembly, specifically a Magyar national assembly. This ethnic exclusivity alienated other ethnic groups within Hungary, such as the Croats, Slovaks, and Serbs, who were beginning to assert their own national identities and enjoyed the protection of the central government in Vienna.
The revolution quickly spread beyond the halls of parliament, with young intellectuals like the poet Sándor Petőfi, the novelist Mór Jókai, and others playing a pivotal role in rallying support for the cause. On March 13, 1848, the Emperor, in a bid to quell the growing unrest, appointed Count Louis Batthyány as the first Hungarian responsible ministry, with Kossuth as a key member. However, the revolution continued to gain momentum, and in April 1849, Kossuth was elected regent and assumed leadership of the movement. He mustered a revolutionary army of 170,000 troops, known as the "Honvéd," and marched on Vienna to challenge the Habsburgs.
The revolution faced significant setbacks, particularly with the intervention of foreign powers. In June 1849, Russian troops invaded Hungary at the request of the Austrian government, and by July, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament was crushed by the combined forces of the Russian and Austrian armies. Despite this, the revolution had a lasting impact, leading to the formation of a Hungarian responsible government and setting the stage for further struggles for independence and political reform in the years to come.
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The Pragmatic Sanction of 1723
The future succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary became contentious when Charles III, the last male of the House of Habsburg, acceded in 1711. The Hungarian crown had become a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs in 1687, but only men could inherit it. Charles III had privately agreed with his older brother and predecessor, King Joseph I, on the Mutual Pact of Succession in 1703. The Mutual Pact provided for female succession to the Habsburg monarchy in the event of the extinction of the male line. However, it gave precedence to Joseph I's daughters over Charles III's.
In 1712, Charles III failed to gain Hungarian approval for the succession of his future daughters. The Croatian estates, despite their long association with Hungary, unilaterally approved Charles's intention, causing Hungarian discontent. Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, emphasising the indivisibility of the Habsburg domains and the rights of his future daughters. At the assembly of the Diet of Hungary in 1715, Charles agreed that the Diet should elect a king if he died without a male heir. By the end of the 1710s, Charles had two daughters, Maria Theresa and Maria Anna, and his nieces, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, agreed to cede their claim to them.
In 1723, the Diet agreed to extend the succession rights to the daughters of Charles III, followed by the daughters of Joseph I, and finally by the daughters of Leopold I. In return, Charles solemnly reconfirmed the rights of the estates of the realm and the Hungarian nobility. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 had a great impact on the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which created the dual monarchy. The Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák argued that, according to the Pragmatic Sanction of 1723, constitutional governing of Hungary was a prerequisite of Habsburg rule over Hungary.
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The Ausgleich
Under the Ausgleich, the Austrian and Hungarian states were co-equal in power and conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies. Common ministries for foreign affairs and defence were created, each under a joint minister. A third common minister was responsible for financing these portfolios. The two countries maintained separate parliaments and prime ministers, and their domestic policy issues were dealt with autonomously, resulting in different approaches in some cases.
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The Nationalities Law
The law also played a role in the consolidation of the Military Frontier and the incorporation of Transylvania, which involved the abolition of the old "Three Nations." However, the Saxon "university" or territorial autonomy was allowed to continue as a cultural institution.
The compromise also reflected the multi-ethnic nature of both halves of the empire, with the Austrian half consisting of seventeen historical crown lands and various language groups, and the Hungarian half dominated by the Magyars but with several non-Magyar ethnic groups. The Nationalities Law, in this context, was an attempt to address the diversity and varying nationalities within Hungary, guaranteeing their rights within a unified nation.
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