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Austria's acceptance of Hitler's Germany was a complex process influenced by various factors. By the 1920s, some Austrians favoured unification with Germany, believing it would solve economic issues arising from the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This desire for unification was not new, with debates about Austria's role in a German nation-state dating back to the 19th century. The rise of the Austrian National Socialists, linked to Hitler's NSDAP, gained momentum due to the economic crisis, attracting members with antisemitic and expansionist ideologies. Hitler, himself an Austrian, exploited these sentiments, ultimately orchestrating the annexation of Austria in 1938, known as the Anschluss. This act violated international treaties, but the European powers failed to intervene, allowing Hitler's expansionist agenda to continue unchecked. The Austrian chancellor, Schuschnigg, attempted to maintain Austrian independence but was pressured to resign, and a plebiscite was held to legitimise the unification, with over 99% approval. Thus, Austria's acceptance of Hitler's Germany was a combination of ideological, economic, and political factors, culminating in the country's transformation into a federal state of Germany.
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's German nationalist ideas and Austrian heritage
Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria, on 20 April 1889. He moved to Germany in 1913, but his Austrian origins were a significant part of his identity and influenced his political ideology.
Hitler's German nationalist ideas were shaped by his Austrian heritage and the political context of the time. From a young age, Hitler, like many Austrian Germans, developed German nationalist ideas, expressing loyalty only to Germany and despising the declining Habsburg monarchy and its rule over an ethnically diverse empire. The radical German nationalist and anti-Semite Georg von Schönerer inspired Hitler's ideology. Von Schönerer led organisations like the Pan-German Society, which demanded the unification of all German-speaking territories, including those in the Danube Monarchy, with the German Empire. This "Greater Germany" solution was a significant propaganda point later asserted by Hitler, who sought to unite all Germans into one nation-state.
Hitler's Austrian heritage influenced his intense nationalism and desire to unite Germany and Austria. He was influenced by the anti-Semitic politics of Vienna's mayor, Karl Lueger, and rejected the multi-ethnic composition of Austria's ruling Habsburg Empire. Hitler's time in Vienna, where he lived a bohemian existence, was pivotal in shaping his ideology. He joined the German Workers' Party (DAP) in 1919, impressing other members with his vehement attacks on those who opposed his nationalist ideas. He became the leader of the DAP and, in an effort to appeal to a wider German audience, renamed it the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party).
Hitler's nationalism was also influenced by the Prussian tradition, which emphasised the militant spirit and discipline of the Prussian army as a model for individual and civic life. His nationalism was Romantic in nature, based on collective self-determination, territorial unification, cultural identity, and a political and cultural programme to achieve those ends. It drew on the ideas of naturalism and the belief that legitimate nations must have been conceived in a state of nature.
Hitler's Austrian heritage and German nationalist ideas were thus closely intertwined. His Austrian origins shaped his intense nationalism, desire to unite Germany and Austria, and rejection of the multi-ethnic Habsburg monarchy. These ideas, combined with his charismatic leadership and mass appeal, contributed to the formation of Nazism, a totalitarian movement that emphasised the annihilation of all enemies of the Aryan Volk.
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Austria's economic dependence on former lands of Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary was a large, heavily rural country with wealth and income levels comparable to France or the USA in 1870. The population was heavily rural, with 67% of the workforce in agriculture in 1870, and 60% in 1913. The economy of Austria-Hungary changed slowly during the existence of the Dual Monarchy (1867-1918). The capitalist way of production spread throughout the empire during its 50-year existence, replacing medieval institutions.
In the later years of the 19th century, rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and the Carpathian lands. The Austrian half of the empire maintained its dominance within the empire in the sectors of the First Industrial Revolution. However, the Austrian competition could not dominate the industries of the Second Industrial Revolution. The resulting division of labour between the east and west, and the existing economic and monetary union, led to even more rapid economic growth throughout Austria-Hungary by the early 20th century.
Economic growth centred on Vienna, Budapest, and Prague, as well as the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine region, and the Bohemian lands. The Kingdom of Hungary became the world's second-largest flour exporter after the United States. The large Hungarian food exports were not limited to neighbouring Germany and Italy: Hungary became the most important foreign food supplier of the large cities and industrial centres of the United Kingdom.
Foreign investment in the Empire, 1870 to 1913, was dominated by Germany, followed by France, and to a lesser extent Great Britain. However, Austria exported more capital than it imported. By 1910, Germany was the most important trading partner, accounting for 48% of all exports and 39% of all imports.
Following World War I, the Austrian Patriotic Front lost an important ally in Mussolini. Despite the murder of Engelbert Dollfuß, his successor Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg wanted to maintain the independence of Austria. However, he had to improve relations with the German government and accepted the July Agreement with Germany in 1936. Hitler became involved with the German Workers' Party (DAP) while infiltrating the party, and joined the party in 1919, becoming its 55th member. Hitler's interest in annexing Austria was driven by his desire for "living space" and bringing Eastern Europe into a "greater economic space". The German annexation of Austria was the first act of territorial expansion committed by Nazi Germany and allowed Hitler to continue his expansionary policies unchecked.
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Austria's political isolation and the international community's indifference
By the 1920s, the idea of unifying Austria and Germany had strong support in both countries, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and center. This was partly because many felt that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not economically or politically viable as a separate state. However, support for unification faded over time, and by 1919, the idea was not overwhelmingly popular among Austrians.
Despite this, the Austrian Nazi Party, linked to Hitler's NSDAP, continued to gain votes in the following years, particularly due to the economic crisis. In 1933, Hitler rose to power in Germany, and the desire for unification became increasingly associated with the Nazis. In 1934, Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrian chancellor, was assassinated by the Austrian SS, and his successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, had to improve relations with the German government. Schuschnigg saw Austria as a second German state and wanted to maintain its independence.
In July 1936, Schuschnigg accepted the July Agreement with Germany, which included releasing imprisoned Nazis and allowing some Nazi newspapers into Austria. However, by the winter of 1937-1938, Austria found itself diplomatically isolated, facing an increasingly aggressive Nazi Germany. The international community, including Britain and France, showed little interest in maintaining Austrian independence.
On February 12, 1938, Schuschnigg met with Hitler, who demanded control over Austria's foreign and military policies and the placement of Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart in charge of security matters. On March 11, 1938, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel a planned plebiscite on Austrian independence and resign. The annexation of Austria by Germany, known as the Anschluss, marked a significant breach of the post-World War I international order, as it violated international treaties.
The international community's acceptance of the Anschluss was a significant act of appeasement, allowing Hitler to continue his expansionist policies unchecked. Many Austrians also helped carry out the Nazification of their country, with civil servants, soldiers, and police officers taking an oath to Hitler in public celebrations. The majority of bureaucrats who implemented the Final Solution were Austrian. Thus, Austria's political isolation and the international community's indifference played a crucial role in enabling Hitler's Germany to pursue its aggressive foreign policy and expansionist goals.
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Hitler's threats of invasion and Schuschnigg's resignation
The Anschluss, or the unification of Austria and Germany, was the first act of territorial expansion committed by Nazi Germany and a significant breach of the post-World War I international order. The Austrian National Socialists, or the Nazi Party, had been gaining supporters in Austria since 1931–1932, coinciding with Hitler's rising popularity in Germany.
In July 1936, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg accepted the July Agreement with Germany, which allowed the release of imprisoned July Putsch insurgents and the inclusion of Nazi contact men Edmund Glaise-Horstenau and Guido Schmidt in the Austrian cabinet. Despite considering Austria a "better German state", Schuschnigg was strongly opposed to Hitler's goal of absorbing Austria into the Third Reich and wished for it to remain independent.
Hitler, on the other hand, was not satisfied with the July Agreement and continued to make demands on Austria. In February 1938, Schuschnigg met with Hitler in an attempt to avoid the takeover of Austria. Hitler presented him with a set of demands, including appointing Nazi sympathizers to positions of power in the government. Schuschnigg agreed to these demands, but it did not stop Hitler from continuing his threats to exercise control over Austrian politics.
On March 11, 1938, Hitler gave an ultimatum to Schuschnigg, demanding that he hand over all power to the Austrian Nazis or face an invasion. Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence but realized that neither France nor Britain was willing to offer assistance. Facing the threat of invasion and with no outside support, Schuschnigg resigned on the evening of March 11, 1938, and allowed the Nazis to take over the government.
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The Austrian public's support for unification
The idea of a union between Austria and Germany, known as the Anschluss, gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The new Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1919 prohibited this. The treaties also imposed harsh economic sanctions on both countries, resulting in hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and constant riots. These economic hardships likely contributed to the appeal of unification, with many Austrians believing that their country, stripped of its imperial lands, was not economically viable on its own.
Plebiscites in the Austrian border provinces of Tyrol and Salzburg in the early 1920s yielded overwhelming majorities in favour of unification, with votes of 98% and 99% respectively. By the 1920s, the idea of the Anschluss had strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and centre. However, support for unification began to wane over time, and by the end of 1933, Austrian public opinion about German annexation was at least 60% against.
The rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany in 1933 changed the dynamics of the unification debate in Austria. Hitler, born in Austria, demanded the right to the Anschluss and made it an integral part of the Nazi "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept, which aimed to incorporate ethnic Germans outside Germany into a "Greater Germany". Nazi agents actively cultivated pro-unification sentiments in Austria and worked to undermine the Austrian government, which opposed unification. Austrian Nazis, exiled in Germany after a failed coup in 1934, continued to push for unification.
In early 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg, facing pressure from pro-unification activists, announced a referendum on unification with Germany. Hitler threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign, sending the German army across the border on March 12, 1938, a day before the planned referendum. A plebiscite was held on April 10, with the ballot manipulated through threats and coercion, resulting in 99.7% approval. However, it is important to note that between 300,000 and 400,000 Austrian citizens, including Jews, Roma, and political opponents, were forbidden from participating in the referendum.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria's acceptance of Hitler's Germany was a result of several factors, including political pressure, economic factors, and the threat of military force. Firstly, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg attempted to maintain the country's independence but was bullied by Hitler into appointing Austrian Nazis to his cabinet. Secondly, by 1936, Austria was suffering economically due to a German boycott, which motivated Schuschnigg to seek an agreement with Germany. Finally, Hitler's threat of invasion and the German Army's unopposed border crossing on March 12, 1938, left Austria with little choice but to accept Hitler's demands.
Austrian Nazis played a significant role in the unification. In early 1938, they conspired to seize the Austrian government and unite with Nazi Germany. They also gained support within Austria, especially after the economic crisis, using slogans like "500,000 Unemployed – 400,000 Jews – Simple way out; vote National Socialist".
The international community's response was largely passive. By 1937-1938, Austria was diplomatically isolated, and countries like France and Britain accepted the unification as inevitable. Additionally, the other European powers did not punish Hitler for violating international treaties that forbade the unification of Austria and Germany.
The unification transformed Austria overnight. Austrian and German Nazis quickly carried out the Nazification of Austrian society, with many Austrians participating enthusiastically. This included the persecution of Austria's Jewish population, with Jews being robbed, forced to scrub streets, and driven to suicide or flee the country.
