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Austria has had a long history of influence and control over various Italian states, especially in the north of the country. Since the Middle Ages, Austrian and Italian states have fought numerous wars as both enemies and allies. Austria has ruled over several Italian states at different times, including Lombardy, Venetia, Mantua, Ferrara, Savoy, Tuscany, and the Papal States. The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, a constituent land of the Austrian Empire, was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, recognizing the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the Republic of Venice. This kingdom lasted until 1866 when it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy following Italy's victory in the Third Italian War of Independence. Austrian rule in northern Italy clashed with Italian nationalism, leading to the Wars of Italian Independence and ultimately, Italian victory and unification.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Austrian rule | From the Middle Ages to the 1800s |
| Italian states under Austrian rule | Tuscany, Mantua, Ferrara, Savoy, the Papal States, Venice, Trentino, Istria, Lombardy, Venetia, Piedmont, Genoa, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Sicily, Sardinia |
| Austrian rulers | Emperor Franz Joseph I, Francis I, Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine, Austrian Habsburgs, King Ferdinand, Metternich |
| Wars between Italy and Austria | Uskok War of 1615–1618, Three Wars of Italian Independence (1848–1866), World War I |
| Alliances | Austria was allied with several Italian states during wars against the Ottoman Empire; Italy was part of the Triple Alliance with Austria and Germany in 1882 |
| Peace treaties | Treaty of Zurich, Treaty of Campo Formio (17 Oct 1797), Treaty of London (1915) |
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What You'll Learn
Austrian rule in northern Italy
Austria has had a long history of influence over the Italian states, especially in the north of the country. This influence dates back to the Middle Ages and continued through the Napoleonic Wars and into the 19th century.
The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was created in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice, which had collapsed after the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy fell in 1805. The kingdom was ruled by Emperor Francis I from 1815 until his death in 1835, followed by his son Ferdinand I until 1848. The Austrian emperor was represented by viceroys appointed by the Imperial Court in Vienna and resident in Milan and Venice. The local administration was predominantly Italian in language and staff, with Italian being used for internal and external communications and documents. However, the German language was the command language of the military, and top police officials were native German-speakers from other parts of the empire.
Continued Tensions
Even after the unification of Italy between 1859 and 1870, tensions between the two countries persisted. Austrian rule over Italian-inhabited lands such as Trentino and Istria inflamed Italian nationalism, leading to the construction of fortifications along the Italian border. These tensions continued into the 20th century, with mutual suspicions and speculations of a potential war between the two countries. During World War I, Italy fought against Austria-Hungary despite their previous defensive alliance, and Italy ultimately gained territories from Austria, including Trento and Trieste, as well as the predominantly German-speaking region of South Tyrol.
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Austria's influence on Italian nationalism
Austria has had a long history of influence over Italian states, especially in the north of the country, dating back to the Middle Ages. This influence has had a significant impact on Italian nationalism, which arose as a political force in the 1830s under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini.
Mazzini's objectives included the liberation of Italy from Austrian occupation and indirect control, as well as the removal of princely despotism, aristocratic privilege, and clerical authority. He was captivated by ancient Rome and sought to establish a united Italy as a "Third Rome," emphasizing Roman spiritual values. The initial stirrings of Italian nationalism, however, can be traced back to the Renaissance, when Italy led a European revival of classical Greco-Roman culture, philosophy, and art.
Austrian rule in northern Italy created conditions where Italian nationalism and Austrian interests clashed in the three Wars of Italian Independence between 1848 and 1866, ultimately resulting in an Italian victory. Tensions persisted throughout the 1870s as continued Austrian rule over Italian-inhabited lands, such as Trentino and Istria, inflamed Italian nationalism. This clash of interests led to the construction of additional Austrian fortifications along the Italian border.
The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1866, is a notable example of Austrian influence over Italian states. The kingdom was created by the Congress of Vienna in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the Republic of Venice. The Austrian administration in Lombardy-Venetia used Italian as its official language, and civil servants were predominantly Italian. However, the highest governorships were reserved for Austrian aristocrats, and the military command language was German.
During the Fascist rule in Italy, there were forced Italianization attempts directed at the German-speaking population, negatively impacting relations between the Kingdom of Italy and the newly founded Austrian Republic. This period also witnessed the imprisonment of Italian POWs in Austrian camps during World War II.
Italian nationalism experienced a resurgence during World War I, with irredentist claims to territories held by Austria-Hungary. Italy's entry into World War I in 1915 was motivated by the pursuit of national unity and territorial gains, including regions under Austrian control. Ultimately, Italy emerged victorious in World War I, gaining territories from Austria, such as Trento and Trieste, and further strengthening Italian nationalism.
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Austria's involvement in the Uskok War
Austria has had a long history of involvement in Italy, influencing the Italian states, especially in the north of the country, since the Middle Ages. One particular conflict that Austria was involved in on Italian soil was the Uskok War, also known as the War of Gradisca, which took place from 1615 to 1618.
The Uskok War was fought between the combined forces of Austria and Spain on one side, and the Venetians, Dutch, and English on the other. The conflict gets its name from the Croatian soldiers known as Uskoks, who were used by the Austrians for guerrilla warfare. Due to a lack of success on land and irregular payments of their annual subsidy, the Uskoks resorted to acts of piracy, targeting not only Turkish vessels but also Venetian merchant ships. In response, the Venetians employed escorts, watchtowers, and other protective measures to safeguard their shipping interests. However, the costs of these protective measures became increasingly burdensome over time.
In December 1615, the tension between the Venetians and the Habsburgs escalated into the Uskok War. The Venetians laid siege to Gradisca, a fortress located on the Isonzo River. The Uskoks, being vassals of Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria, received support from King Philip III of Spain, who was Ferdinand's brother-in-law. Ferdinand, rather than attempting to curb their attacks, exploited the Uskoks' piracy to pressure Venice and curb the republic's ambitions in northeastern Italy.
During the war, the Venetians sought allies and received assistance from the Dutch Republic and English volunteers. The Dutch and English forces played a crucial role in preventing Spanish support for the Austrians by sea and land. The Venetian Republic's dominance at sea made them the masters of the Adriatic, while the Austrians only controlled a small part of the coast of Trieste and Croatia, which was effectively blocked by Venice. The first military engagements of the war occurred in January 1616 in Collio, where a garrison of Uskok and Segani forces favoured the Austrian faction.
The Uskok War concluded in 1618, and subsequently, the bond between Venice and the Dutch Republic was formalized through an alliance. In 1620, Ambassador Francois van Aerssen visited Venice to ratify a treaty that entailed mutual assistance if either of the two republics went to war with the Habsburg powers. This treaty marked a shift towards less strained relations between Venice and the Habsburgs during the latter half of the 17th century.
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Austria's alliance with Italian states against the Ottoman Empire
Since the Middle Ages, Austria has had a significant influence on the Italian states, particularly in the north of the country. This influence, however, was not solely unidirectional, as Italy also exerted influence on Austrian culture, architecture, and cuisine. Over the centuries, Austrians and Italians have fought numerous wars, sometimes as enemies and other times as allies.
One notable instance of Austria's alliance with Italian states was during the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. During the war of 1593-1606, Austria was allied with several Italian states, including Tuscany, Mantua, Ferrara, Savoy, and the Papal States. Together, they fought against the expanding influence of the Ottoman Empire, which had become a significant threat to European powers.
In the 17th century, the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars continued, with the siege of Vienna in 1683 being a pivotal event. The Austrians, led by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I and Polish-Lithuanian forces under King John III Sobieski, successfully defended Vienna and pushed back the Ottoman forces. This victory was a turning point in the conflict, as it marked the beginning of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of the Austrian-led Holy League, which included Italian soldiers among its ranks.
In the late 18th century, the Austro-Turkish War of 1788-1791 occurred, with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II allying himself with the Russians against the Ottoman Empire. This conflict saw the Habsburg monarchy successfully capture Belgrade and liberate much of central Serbia, as well as capture several forts in Ottoman Bosnia. However, the gains were largely lost by the war's end, with only minor territorial changes in favour of the Habsburgs.
During the 19th century, tensions between Austria and Italian states persisted, leading to the Wars of Italian Independence between 1848 and 1866. This period witnessed Italian nationalism clashing with Austrian interests, particularly in regions like Trentino and Istria. Despite the conflicts, Italy and Austria found themselves on the same side during World War I, fighting against the declining Ottoman Empire, which had allied with the Central Powers.
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The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia
The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Latin: Regnum Langobardiae et Venetiae), commonly called the "Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom", was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1866. It was created in 1815 by resolution of the Congress of Vienna in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice after the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed in 1805, had collapsed.
The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was first ruled by Emperor Francis I from 1815 until his death in 1835. His son, Ferdinand I, ruled from 1835 to 1848. In Milan, on September 6, 1838, he became the last king to be crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. The crown was subsequently brought to Vienna after the loss of Lombardy in 1859 but was restored to Italy after the loss of Venetia in 1866.
The administration used Italian as its language in its internal and external communications and documents, and the language's dominant position in politics, finance, and jurisdiction was not questioned by Austrian officials. The Italian-language Gazzetta di Milano was the official newspaper of the kingdom. Civil servants employed in the administration were predominantly Italian, with only about 10% of them being recruited from other regions of the Austrian Empire. Some bilingual Italian-German-speaking civil servants came from the neighbouring County of Tyrol. The German language, however, was the command language of the military, and top police officials were native German-speakers from other parts of the empire. The highest governorships were also reserved for Austrian aristocrats. Austrian General Karl von Schönhals wrote in his memoirs that the Austrian administration enjoyed the support of the rural population and the middle class educated at the universities of Pavia and Padua.
The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia comprised two independent governments (Gubernien) in its two parts, which were officially declared separate crown lands. Each part was further subdivided into several provinces, roughly corresponding with the départements of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Lombardy included the provinces of Milan, Como, Bergamo, Brescia, Pavia, Cremona, Mantua, Lodi-Crema, and Sondrio. Venetia included the provinces of Venice, Verona, Padua, Vicenza, Treviso, Rovigo, Belluno, and Udine. According to the Ethnographic map of Karl von Czoernig-Czernhausen, issued by the Imperial and Royal Administration of Statistics in 1855, the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had a population of 5,024,117 people, consisting of Italians (Lombard-Venetians), Friulians, Germans (Cimbrians in Venetia), Slovenians, and Jews.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria has had control over various parts of Italy at different times since the Middle Ages, especially in the north of the country.
In the 18th century, Austrian Habsburg control was established over much of northern Italy, including Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna, and Mantua.
From 1815 to 1866, the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire, with Francis I of Austria as its king. This kingdom included the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice.
During this period, other Italian states under Austrian influence or control included Tuscany, Mantua, Ferrara, Savoy, and the Papal States.
Austrian rule in northern Italy clashed with Italian nationalism, leading to the three Wars of Italian Independence between 1848 and 1866, which ultimately resulted in an Italian victory.
During the Austrian period, the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia used Italian as its official language for administration and communication. Civil servants were predominantly Italian, but military commands and top police officials were native German speakers. The highest governorships were reserved for Austrian aristocrats.
Austrian control over Italian states was gradually lost through a series of conflicts and treaties in the 19th century.
In 1859, after the Second Italian War of Independence and the Battle of Solferino, Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which then passed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Following the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, the remaining territory of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, bringing an end to Austrian rule in the region.
