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The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states. The compromise granted Hungary significant autonomy while preserving its union with Austria, and was admired by Irish political thinkers, who saw it as a model for Irish-British dual governance. The agreement was a compromise between the emperor and Hungary, with Hungary receiving full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry, while the empire remained a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs. The official name of the state shaped by the Ausgleich was Austria-Hungary.
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was facilitated by Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák, who argued that the Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 made questions of defence and foreign affairs "common" to both Austria and Hungary. Deák initially supported Hungarian independence and the 1848 Revolution but later advocated for a modified union under the Habsburgs. The compromise was only partially successful in reconciling the two sides, as it was seen by many Hungarians as a betrayal of their interests and the achievements of the 1848-49 War of Independence.
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The Pragmatic Sanction of 1723
The future succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary became a point of contention when Charles III, the last male of the House of Habsburg, ascended the throne in 1711 without any children. The Hungarian crown had become a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs in 1687, but only men could inherit it. Charles had privately agreed with his older brother and predecessor, King Joseph I, on the Mutual Pact of Succession in 1703. The Mutual Pact provided for female succession to the monarchy in the absence of male heirs, but it gave precedence to Joseph's daughters over Charles's.
Charles had no sons, and his male child born in 1716 died the same year. By the end of the 1710s, Charles had only two children, both daughters: Maria Theresa (born in 1717) and Maria Anna (born in 1718). His nieces, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, agreed to cede their claim to the throne to Charles's daughters, significantly facilitating the acceptance of female succession in Hungary.
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The Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The catalyst for the revolution came on March 3, 1848, when Lajos Kossuth, a member of the Hungarian Diet in Pressburg (now Bratislava), delivered a fiery speech demanding political co-determination and a constitutional monarchy. Kossuth's speech galvanised his supporters, who transformed the Diet into a Hungarian national assembly, specifically a Magyar assembly. This shift reflected Kossuth's belief that Hungary was a nation of Magyars, dismissing other ethnic groups as 'tribes speaking other languages'. This ethnocentric perspective alienated the Croats, Slovaks, Serbs, and others, who enjoyed the protection of the central government in Vienna and did not support the revolution.
The revolution in Hungary was part of a broader wave of uprisings across Europe in 1848, including the revolution in Vienna, which had broken out on March 13. The Austrian monarchy was forced to make concessions to the revolutionaries in Vienna, and this momentum spread to Hungary. On March 17, 1848, Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria assented to the creation of the first Hungarian responsible government, with Lajos Batthyány as Prime Minister. Batthyány's government was short-lived, however, as the Austrian monarchy sought to regain control.
The Hungarian revolutionaries, led by Kossuth, mustered a revolutionary army of 170,000 troops called the 'Honvéd' or territorial army. They marched on Vienna to support the October rebellion against the Habsburgs but were repulsed by imperial troops. Despite this setback, the Hungarian war of independence continued, and on April 14, 1849, they broke with the Habsburg dynasty, deposing Franz Joseph as King of Hungary. The Honvéd troops enjoyed initial success, capturing Buda in May 1849 and bringing large parts of the country under revolutionary control.
However, the tide turned against the Hungarian revolutionaries when the Austrian army achieved victories in Italy, freeing up resources to focus on Hungary. The Austrian government requested military assistance from Russia, and in June 1849, Russian troops invaded Hungary. The revolution ultimately failed, and the Austrian Empire survived, but the Hungarians' pursuit of independence and self-governance continued to shape the region's political landscape in the years to come.
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The Ausgleich
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which was a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states. The Compromise only partially re-established the former pre-1848 sovereignty and status of the Kingdom of Hungary, being separate from, and no longer subject to, the Austrian Empire. The compromise put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary which Emperor Franz Joseph had instituted after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Hungary was restored. The agreement also restored the old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary. Hungarian political leaders had two main goals during the negotiations. One was to regain the traditional status (both legal and political) of the Hungarian state, which had been lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
The other was to restore the series of reform laws (the so-called April Laws) of the revolutionary parliament of 1848, which were based on the 12 points that established modern civil and political rights and economic and societal reforms in Hungary. The April Laws of the Hungarian revolutionary parliament (with the exception of the laws based on the 9th and 10th points) were restored by Franz Joseph. Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, headed by a single monarch who reigned as Emperor of Austria in the Austrian half of the empire, and as King of Hungary in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Cisleithanian (Austrian) and Transleithanian (Hungarian) states were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers. The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies.
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Self-determination
The idea of self-determination was a critical factor in reshaping the map of Europe after World War I, leading to the division of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into independent states. This concept allowed ethnic groups within the empire to form their own nations based on shared culture, language, and a desire for independence.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a dual monarchy established by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, was a union of two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a shared diplomatic and military alliance. While the Compromise granted significant autonomy to Hungary, it did not address the aspirations of other ethnic groups within the empire, such as the Czechs, Slovaks, and Romanians.
The empire faced significant pressure from these nations aspiring for independence. In response to this pressure, Emperor Karl I agreed to allow the creation of a confederation, with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the leaders of these national groups rejected this idea due to their distrust of Vienna and their determination to achieve full independence.
As a result, the empire was dismantled, and the peace negotiations after World War I recognised the right of self-determination for these ethnic groups. The Treaty of Versailles and subsequent treaties granted them the opportunity to form their own nation-states, leading to the establishment of countries like Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia.
The principle of self-determination, which was also a factor in the lead-up to World War I, played a pivotal role in shaping the post-war landscape of Europe by empowering ethnic populations within the Austro-Hungarian Empire to establish their independent states.
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Frequently asked questions
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which was a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states.
The dual monarchy granted Hungary significant autonomy while preserving its union with Austria. Hungary had full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry, while the empire remained a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs.
Hungarian political leaders had two main goals: to regain the traditional status (both legal and political) of the Hungarian state and to restore the territorial integrity and old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary.
The Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 stated that constitutional governing of Hungary was a fundamental prerequisite of Habsburg rule and that foreign policy, defense, and their financing were joint affairs of Austria-Hungary, resulting in the dual monarchy.
The principle of self-determination was key in reshaping the map of Europe after World War I, allowing ethnic groups within the empire to form their own nations based on shared culture and language.
