Lyla Lindsey
Serbia and Austria-Hungary have a long history of conflict and occupation. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in 1914, and the two countries have been involved in complex political and military struggles for decades. Serbia's ambition in the Balkans region and its growing nationalism threatened Austria-Hungary, leading to a breakdown in their relations. Serbia's response to Austria-Hungary's ultimatum in 1914 was deemed insufficient, leading to the severing of diplomatic ties. The conflict between these two countries eventually escalated into World War I, with Serbia playing a critical role in its outbreak. The question of which country was created from Serbia and Austria-Hungary is complex and requires an understanding of the historical context and the involvement of other nations in the region.
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What You'll Learn
The Bosnian crisis
The mid-1870s witnessed a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, with equally violent and repressive responses from the Ottoman Empire. The Russians declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and, after a few setbacks, drove them back to within a few miles of Constantinople. The other great powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, were determined to enforce an earlier treaty, the London Straits Convention of 1841, which prevented Russia from driving the Ottomans out of Europe completely.
In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed that Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would remain neutral in the war with the Ottoman Empire. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 gave Austria-Hungary the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina temporarily, but the provinces officially remained Ottoman possessions. The Austrian administration tried to improve the region economically and to link it closely with Austria-Hungary.
In July 1908, the Young Turks staged a revolution in Constantinople (now Istanbul), establishing a constitutional government and a reform program. Fearing that the revolution could spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it had support from Bosnian Muslims and Serbs, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire on 5 October.
The annexation sparked protests from the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia, which was closely related to Bosnia and Herzegovina geographically and ethnically, was outraged and demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia. Russia, pressed by anti-Austrian opinion at home, supported the Serbian claims. Austria, firmly supported by its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands. Serbia mobilised its army, and on 7 October, the Serbian Crown Council demanded that the annexation be reversed or that Serbia be compensated with a strip of land in the northernmost portion of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar.
Although the crisis was resolved without immediate warfare, the resulting embittered relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, and Russia's resentment at having been deceived and humiliated, contributed to the outbreak of World War I. On 26 February 1909, the crisis was resolved when the Ottoman Empire recognised the annexation after receiving material compensation and the withdrawal of Austrian-Hungarian garrisons from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Treaty of Berlin was amended in April 1909 to reflect the fait accompli and bring the crisis to a close. Although appearing to be a total Austro-Hungarian diplomatic victory, the crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia.
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Serbian nationalism
In the 19th century, Serbian nationalism emerged as a response to Ottoman rule, with the 1804 uprisings by Serbs eventually leading to the creation of an independent Serbian state in 1878. However, even after independence, tensions persisted between Serbia and its neighbours, particularly Austria-Hungary, which had a sizeable Serb minority within its borders and was seen by Serbs as an oppressive force. This led to increasing antagonism between the two countries, with Serbian nationalism viewed as a threat to the Habsburg Monarchy's survival.
Serbian nationalists advocated for a centralized Yugoslav state that guaranteed the unity of Serbs, while resisting decentralization efforts. This vision was consolidated in the Vidovdan Constitution of 1921, which established a centralized monarchy under the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty. However, this centralist vision clashed with the aspirations of Croatian and Slovenian nationalists, leading to political instability and violent conflicts within Yugoslavia during the interwar period.
During World War II, the invasion and partition of Yugoslavia further fuelled violent ethnic conflicts between nationalist Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and others. This led to the emergence of a highly violent sectarian variant of Serbian nationalism within the Chetnik movement.
In the post-World War II period, the suppression of ethnic nationalist sentiments and the decentralization of Yugoslavia in the 1960s sparked a Serbian nationalist backlash in the 1980s. As Yugoslavia began to collapse in the 1990s, Serbian nationalists demanded the unification of all Serbs in a common state, leading to ethnic conflicts with other Yugoslav ethnicities seeking independence. Serbian nationalism was a significant factor in the breakup of Yugoslavia and the violent Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.
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Austria-Hungary's ultimatum
On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, a conflict that would escalate into World War I. This declaration came after a period of heightened tensions between the two countries, culminating in Austria-Hungary delivering an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914.
The ultimatum consisted of a list of harsh demands that Austria-Hungary knew Serbia would likely reject, providing a justification for war. The main terms of the ultimatum included:
- Suppressing all anti-Austrian propaganda within Serbia and preventing negative information about Austria-Hungary or its Emperor from being spread.
- Dissolving Serbian nationalist organisations, including the "Narodna Odbrana".
- Removing and arresting individuals in the Serbian government deemed responsible for anti-Austrian actions.
- Allowing Austro-Hungarian representatives to enter Serbia to investigate the assassination of Franz Ferdinand.
- Removing from military service and administration all officers involved in propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
- Accepting the collaboration of Austro-Hungarian representatives in suppressing the subversive movement against the Monarchy's territorial integrity.
Serbia was angered and insulted by the ultimatum, particularly the demand to allow Austro-Hungarian representatives to enter the country, as it viewed itself as a sovereign nation. Despite effectively accepting all demands except one, Serbia did not officially respond to the ultimatum, instead seeking assistance from its ally, Russia. This prompted Russia to begin its own military mobilisation, heightening the crisis and ultimately leading to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on 28 July.
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Serbian Campaign
The Serbian Campaign was a series of military expeditions launched in 1914 and 1915 by the Central Powers against the Kingdom of Serbia during World War I. The campaign began after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, marking the start of World War I. Threatened by Serbian ambition in the tumultuous Balkans region, Austria-Hungary aimed to invade Serbia, driven by the threat of Serb nationalism. The Austro-Hungarian leadership euphemistically dubbed the campaign a "punitive expedition".
The first invasion of Serbia was launched with numerical inferiority, as part of one of the armies originally destined for the Balkan front had been diverted to the Eastern Front. However, the able Serbian commander, Radomir Putnik, successfully led the defence of Serbia, achieving victories at the Battle of Cer Mountain (August 15–20) and at Šabac (August 21–24). Putnik's subsequent northward offensive on the Sava River had to be broken off when the Austrians began a second offensive against the Serbs' western front on the Drina River. After some weeks of deadlock, the Austrians began a third offensive, which forced the Serbs to evacuate Belgrade on November 30.
The second Serbian campaign was launched under German command on October 6, 1915, with Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen successfully invading Serbia. This resulted in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania, the evacuation to Greece, and the establishment of the Macedonian front. The defeat of Serbia gave the Central Powers temporary mastery over the Balkans, allowing the Germans to re-supply the Ottoman Empire. Serbia was then occupied and divided between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria. The Serbian army suffered severe casualties, declining from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation in 1918.
The Serbian Campaign resulted in a brutal toll on Serbia's civilian population, with original Serb sources claiming a loss of more than 1,200,000 inhabitants during the war, including both military and civilian casualties. The campaign also involved the participation of Australian and New Zealander soldiers, airmen, sailors, and medical and humanitarian volunteers, with over 150 Australian servicemen and women decorated by the Serbian government for their service.
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Serbian independence
Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a landlocked country in Southeast and Central Europe. It is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a member of the UN, Council of Europe, OSCE, PfP, BSEC, CEFTA, and is acceding to the WTO. Serbia has a long and complex history, with the origin of the name "Serbia" being unclear. The term "'Serb" to describe one of the Slavic peoples is very old, dating back to at least the 2nd century CE.
In 1867, Serbia achieved de facto independence from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1869, Serbian diplomats enacted a new constitution without consulting the Porte, confirming their independence. The formal independence of Serbia was internationally recognised at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish War. However, Serbia's expansion was limited by the treaty, which prohibited it from uniting with other Serbian regions.
In the early 20th century, tensions rose between Serbia and Austria-Hungary due to Serbian nationalism and the presence of a significant Serb minority within Austria-Hungary. This eventually led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia in 1914, triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian nationalist. During World War I, Serbia was occupied by Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, and its territory was divided between the two countries. Despite the occupation, Serbian guerrillas continued to wage a resistance campaign against the occupiers.
After World War I, Serbia was united with other Austro-Hungarian provinces into a pan-Slavic state, and its territory expanded to include regions of the former Serbian Vojvodina. Serbia achieved its current borders at the end of World War II when it became a federal unit within the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia.
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Frequently asked questions
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir of Franz Joseph, and his wife by Bosnian Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914.
The Kingdom of Serbia was bordered by Austria-Hungary to the north and was a satellite state. However, Serbia's attempts to reduce Austrian influence and increase its own independence angered Austrian ministers.
Towards the end of 1915, Serbia was divided between Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, with both countries establishing military administrations in the territories they had occupied.
