Lyla Lindsey
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as Austria-Hungary, was a dual monarchy consisting of the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. It was formed in 1867 and dissolved in 1918, after World War I. The empire's collapse was formalized in the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria and the 1920 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary. The territories that were once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire are now found in several European countries, including Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Italy, and Hungary.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Years of existence | 1867-1918 |
| Official name | Austria-Hungary |
| Type of state | Dual monarchy |
| Kingdoms | Austria, Hungary |
| Other territories | Bohemia, Moravia, Bukovina, Transylvania, Carniola, Küstenland, Dalmatia, Croatia, Fiume, Galicia |
| Languages | German, Hungarian, Italian, Slavic languages |
| Population | A major source of emigration to the US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries |
| Economy | Inflation rose from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918 |
| Military | Fought in World War I, with support from Germany |
| Post-dissolution | Both Austria and Hungary became republics, exiling the Habsburg family |
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What You'll Learn
Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It was dissolved in 1918 when Hungary terminated its union with Austria. The Kingdom of Hungary and the First Austrian Republic were its recognised successors, while the independence of the Second Polish Republic was also acknowledged by the victorious powers in 1920.
Poland
The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, also known as Austrian Poland, was a constituent possession of the Habsburg monarchy. It was annexed from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772 during the First Partition of Poland. In 1795, the Habsburg monarchy participated in the Third Partition of Poland, annexing more Polish-held territory. In 1867, it became a crownland within the Austrian half of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Galicia, which was predominantly Polish-speaking, was described as the poorest province of Austria-Hungary, suffering from near-constant famines.
Ukraine
The Ukrainian regions of Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia were all part of the Habsburg realm. In 1772, the Habsburgs annexed Galicia from Poland, and two years later they acquired Bukovina, a partly Ukrainian and partly Romanian territory, from Moldavia. Transcarpathia was already under Habsburg rule as part of the Hungarian crown. Galicia was officially bilingual, with Polish and Ukrainian as its two languages. However, Ukrainian-language teaching was largely limited to parochial schools. Ukrainian nationalists saw Galicia as a Ukrainian Piedmont, a base from which to liberate their country from Austrian rule.
Romania
Romania was one of the newly founded states with which the Romanians in Transylvania and the eastern Banat sought union. The Romanian language was granted individual rights in 1868, but the Hungarian state later reduced the use of non-Magyar languages in schools.
Serbia
Serbia was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces from 1915 until the end of World War I. In 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, shelling Belgrade and starting World War I. Serbia was divided into two separate occupation zones, with the northern three-quarters under Austro-Hungarian control. The Swiss criminologist Archibald Reiss reported that the Austro-Hungarian army killed between 3,000 and 4,000 civilians in the invaded Serbian territory.
Montenegro
In January 1916, Austria-Hungary launched a campaign to defeat and occupy Montenegro, an ally of Serbia. The Austrian-Hungarian army advanced along the Tara River and took the Lovćen Pass, breaking the morale of the defenders. The Montenegrin army retreated into their own territory but continued to resist. The Austro-Hungarian troops occupied the rest of Montenegro in early 1918.
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Czechoslovakia
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as Austria-Hungary, was a dual monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918. The empire's collapse at the end of World War I led to the formation of several new nations, including Czechoslovakia.
The Formation of Czechoslovakia
In 1916, Masaryk, Štefánik, and Beneš established the Czechoslovak National Council, which gained Allied recognition in the summer of 1918. On October 18, 1918, while in the United States, Masaryk issued a declaration of Czechoslovak independence. However, the process of achieving independence was complex due to territorial conflicts with neighbouring countries, including Poland, Germany, and Austria.
Territorial Composition of Czechoslovakia
Challenges and Legacy
The newly established Czechoslovakia faced various challenges, including economic struggles due to the loss of traditional markets and the need to balance the industrially advanced Bohemian lands with the comparatively underdeveloped Slovakia and Carpathian Ukraine. Additionally, it had to navigate ethnic diversity, as the borders drawn did not always align with ethnic principles, leading to tensions between different groups.
The Czechoslovak Republic, as a successor state to Austria-Hungary, covered around 20% of the area of the former monarchy, making it the largest of the successor states. It played a significant role in the region's history and underwent further transformations, eventually giving way to the formation of the two new states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1992.
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Italy
The Italian front witnessed intense battles, including the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo in March 1916, where Italy captured Mount Sabatino. However, Austria-Hungary repulsed further attacks, leading to a stalemate. The Austro-Hungarian forces then planned a counteroffensive, known as the Battle of Asiago, aiming to break through to the Po River plain and cut off multiple Italian armies in the northeast. Despite initial gains, the Italians counterattacked and pushed the Austro-Hungarians back.
In October 1917, the Austrians, with German support, launched an attack at Caporetto, advancing towards Venice. Italy suffered massive casualties but recovered, forming a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. With support from Entente allies, Italy received war materials and auxiliary American, British, and French divisions, which proved decisive. Under the command of General Armando Diaz, the Italians won the Second Battle of the Piave River in June 1918, inflicting heavy losses on the Austro-Hungarian forces.
The final battle at Vittorio Veneto in October 1918 resulted in an Italian victory, and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti in November 1918, marking the end of military operations on the Italian front. The Royal Italian Army captured Trento and Trieste, and all military operations ceased with the entry into force of the armistice. Italy's participation in World War I and its victories against Austria-Hungary were significant factors in the eventual division of Austria-Hungary and the conclusion of the unification of Italy.
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Yugoslavia
The formation of Yugoslavia was also influenced by the work of the Yugoslav Committee, formed in London in 1915 by South Slavic political figures who had fled there during the early years of World War I. The committee advocated for the unification of the Habsburg South Slav lands with the independent Kingdom of Serbia. In 1917, Anton Korošec read the May Declaration in Vienna, proposing that the Austro-Hungarian Empire be divided into three parts: Austria, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, the latter consisting of separate Slovene, Croat, and Serb entities. This declaration was rejected.
In 1918, following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed, which would later become known as Yugoslavia. The country was officially renamed the "Kingdom of Yugoslavia" in 1929. Prior to its unification, the Kingdom of Serbia merged with Banat, Bačka and Baranja, and the Kingdom of Montenegro.
During the interwar period, relations between Yugoslavia and the First Austrian Republic were marked by conflicts such as the Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia and the establishment of the pro-status quo Little Entente. After World War II, Austria and Yugoslavia collaborated closely during the Cold War, particularly within the framework of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe.
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Austria and Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from 1867 to 1918. It was formed by the Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich or the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, which established a dual monarchy with a king of Hungary and an emperor of Austria. The Compromise also granted Hungary its own parliament and considerable autonomy, although these two roles were held by the same person, Emperor Francis Joseph, from the inception of Austria-Hungary until his death in 1916.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire included not only Austria and Hungary but also Bohemia, Moravia, Bukovina, Transylvania, Carniola, Küstenland, Dalmatia, Croatia, Fiume, and Galicia. The empire was ruled by the Habsburg monarchy, with Francis II, the last of the Holy Roman emperors, proclaiming himself Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1804.
Language was a highly contentious issue in Austro-Hungarian politics, with governments facing challenges in determining the languages of government and instruction. Minorities advocated for education in their native languages, such as Czech, Slovak, and Slavic languages, in addition to the dominant languages of Hungarian and German. The Austrian Prime Minister, Count Kasimir Felix Badeni, attempted to give Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia, but this led to a crisis due to nationalist German agitation.
Relations between Austria and Hungary within the dual monarchy were marked by repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and financial contributions to the common treasury. These matters were renegotiated every ten years, leading to political turmoil before each renewal. Despite these challenges, the Austro-Hungarian Empire endured for over five decades until its collapse in 1918.
Following the collapse of the empire, both Austria and Hungary became republics, exiling the Habsburg family. However, Hungary experienced a pro-monarchist revival after the communist revolution and Romanian intervention in 1919, leading to its formal reversion to a kingdom in March 1920. Attempts by the last Emperor, Charles I, to regain power in Budapest were unsuccessful, and he was deported to Madeira, Portugal, where he died the following year.
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Frequently asked questions
1867.
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise, or the Ausgleich.
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise resulted in the formation of two formally equal entities: the Kingdom of Hungary, also known as Transleithania, and the Austrian Empire, also known as Cisleithania.
Following the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I, the empire was split into Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, and Romania.
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