Belize: A War-Free History

Belize, a country on the northeastern coast of Central America, has a long history of wars and conflicts, dating back to the 16th century when Spanish conquistadors first claimed the land as part of the Spanish Empire. However, they were unable to settle due to a lack of resources and the defence of the land by the tribes of the Yucatán. This led to frequent attacks by the Spanish on British settlements in Belize throughout the 18th century whenever war broke out between the two empires. The last of these military engagements was the Battle of St. George's Caye in 1798, where the British emerged victorious, leading to the end of Spanish attacks and the establishment of Belize as a British colony in 1840.

In the 19th century, Belize became involved in the Caste War of Yucatán (1847-1901), a prolonged indigenous uprising in the Yucatán region that led to an influx of refugees into northern Belize. During World War I, Belize, then known as British Honduras, offered to support the British war effort, and despite initial rejection, many Belizean men volunteered and contributed to the armed forces.

Throughout its history, Belize has also faced border disputes and invasion threats from neighbouring countries, particularly Guatemala, which has persistently claimed sovereignty over Belizean territory. These tensions continued into the early 2000s, posing a significant challenge to Belize's independence and territorial integrity.

The Battle of St. George's Caye (1798)

The Battle of St. George's Caye was a conflict between the English and Spanish that took place in 1798 in what is now Belize. It was a pivotal moment in the history of Belize, securing the region for the British and ending Spanish attempts to take control of the area. The battle is a significant event in Belize's history and is recognised annually during the September Celebrations.

The battle lasted from 3 to 10 September 1798, with the name typically referring to the final engagement on 10 September. The Spanish had made several previous attempts to expel the British colonists from Belize, also known as Baymen, with the most recent attempt before the battle taking place in 1779. The Spanish viewed the British presence as an encroachment on their territory and sought to remove them.

The invading Spanish force from Mexico aimed to assert Spanish claims to the region, while the Baymen, a group of resident woodcutters, fought to protect their livelihood with the assistance of black slaves. The British ships involved in the battle included the HMS Merlin, Teazer, and Tickler, which had been sent from Jamaica to aid the Baymen. The Spanish fleet, on the other hand, consisted of 32 vessels, manned by 500 seamen and 2,000 soldiers.

On 10 September, fourteen of the largest Spanish ships approached and anchored about a mile away from the British fleet, led by the HMS Merlin. The Spanish launched their attack at 2:30 pm, and the battle raged for about two and a half hours until the Spaniards retreated in confusion. The British ships, under the command of Captain John Moss, gave chase but had to recall due to the dangerous narrow channel and difficult navigation as night fell. The Spanish, ravaged by sickness, withdrew, and never returned to attempt another takeover of Belize.

The Battle of St. George's Caye is considered a significant event in Belize's history, showcasing the courage and military tactics employed by the Baymen and slaves who fought together to defend their settlement. It is commemorated as St. George's Caye Day on 10 September and recognised as a national public and bank holiday in Belize.

Caste War of Yucatán (1847-1901)

The Caste War of Yucatán (1847-1901) was a rebellion by the native Maya people of the Yucatán Peninsula against the Hispanic Yucatecos, who held political and economic control of the region. The war was the result of growing resentment among the Maya over increased taxation, the expropriation of their communal lands, and physical abuse on sugar plantations.

In the years leading up to the war, the Yucatecan congress passed a series of laws that facilitated the encroachment of Hispanic Mexicans onto indigenous customary lands. This led to a dramatic increase in land alienation, forcing many Maya to work as indebted labourers on large estates. The Maya also faced discrimination and abuse from the Hispanic elites, who retained significant power and influence despite losing some privileges after Mexican independence.

The war began with the execution of three Maya leaders in Valladolid, followed by a massacre in Tepich in January 1847. By the spring of 1848, the Maya forces had taken over most of the Yucatán, except for the walled cities of Campeche and Mérida. However, they soon lost their advantage when they left their positions to plant crops, in accordance with their traditions. The Yucatecos, aided by reinforcements from Mexico, pushed the Maya back and retook over half of the state.

A stalemate ensued, with the Yucatecan government controlling the northwest and the Maya controlling the southeast, separated by a sparsely populated jungle frontier. In 1850, the "Talking Cross" apparition inspired the Maya to continue the fight, and Chan Santa Cruz became the religious and political centre of the resistance. The United Kingdom recognised the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a de facto independent nation due to the value of trade with British Honduras (present-day Belize) and provided arms to the rebels.

The war unofficially ended in 1901 when the Mexican army occupied Chan Santa Cruz and subdued the surrounding areas. However, skirmishes with small settlements that rejected Mexican control continued until 1933. The war resulted in significant losses for both sides, with an estimated 40,000-50,000 people dying in the conflict.

Guatemalan territorial disputes

The Belize–Guatemalan territorial dispute is an unresolved dispute between the Central American neighbours of Belize (formerly British Honduras) and Guatemala. The roots of the dispute can be traced back to the 17th century when British settlers arrived on the coasts of Central America. The Spanish Crown, which had claimed Belize since the 1400s, considered these settlers mere pirates, and the British Crown did nothing to protect them. In 1763, Spain, as part of the Treaty of Paris, gave these settlers, known as "Baymen", the right to cut logwood within a small area that remained subject to Spanish sovereignty. These rights were extended by treaty in 1783 and 1786, when the boundaries of what had become an official British settlement were agreed upon. Despite this, Spain continued to try to dislodge the settlers, with the last attempt occurring in 1798. Even after the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Central America and Mexico in 1821, Britain continued to regard Spain as the sovereign power.

In 1821, Central America gained independence from Spain and, in 1823, from Mexico. Central America then functioned as a federation until 1838, when it splintered into five separate republics, one of which was Guatemala. By this time, the Baymen had pushed the boundaries of their settlement far beyond the limits agreed with Spain in 1786. In 1839, after the United Provinces of Central America dissolved, Guatemala claimed sovereignty over Belize as an "inheritance" from Spain—a claim rejected by the British. In 1859, Britain and Guatemala signed the Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, which defined the borders between Belize and Guatemala. From the British perspective, this settled the matter, but Guatemala considered it a treaty of cession, arguing that Britain had violated the agreement by failing to help build a cart road to improve communications between Guatemala City and the Atlantic Coast. In the years that followed, Britain offered cash settlements and proposed alternatives such as a railway link, but no agreement was reached.

In 1933, the two countries placed concrete monuments to mark the boundary line as defined by the 1859 treaty. However, in 1940, Guatemala declared the treaty void and, in 1945, the new Guatemalan constitution declared Belize to be part of Guatemalan territory, threatening to invade. Similar threats were made in 1972, 1975, and 1977, each time prevented by an increased British military presence. In 1962, Belizean representatives, along with a British delegation, initiated direct negotiations with Guatemala, but these proved futile, and Belize gained independence in 1981 with the dispute unresolved. Guatemala recognised Belize's independence in 1991 but stated that it did not accept its borders.

In 2008, the two countries agreed to a Special Agreement to resolve the dispute via the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In April 2018, Guatemala held a referendum in which 95.88% of voters supported sending the claim to the ICJ. Belize held its referendum in May 2019, and 55.4% of voters agreed to allow the ICJ to resolve the dispute. As of June 2022, both countries are now settling the dispute at the ICJ, with a ruling not expected until 2025 at the earliest.

Maya immigration and conflict

Belize is home to many ancient Mayan temples, towns, and cities, and is considered by many archaeologists and anthropologists to be the centre of Mayan civilisation. The Maya were a highly skilled people, clearing large sections of tropical rainforest and building underground reservoirs for rainwater storage. They also developed astronomy, mathematics, and an extremely accurate calendar.

The Maya are thought to have originated in the Yucatán around 2600 B.C., rising to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize, and western Honduras. The Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings around 300 B.C. This civilisation developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900.

In the late eighteenth century, as the British pushed deeper into the interior of Belize in search of mahogany, they encountered resistance from the Maya. During the Caste War in Yucatán (1847-1901), thousands of Mayan refugees fled to British settlements in Belize. This war was a devastating struggle that halved the population of the area. The Legislative Assembly did not allow the Maya to own land, so they could only rent or live on reservations. Nevertheless, most refugees were small farmers, and by 1857 they were growing considerable quantities of sugar, rice, corn, and vegetables in the Northern District (now Corozal and Orange Walk districts).

In 1866, a group of Maya, led by Marcos Canul, attacked a mahogany camp on the Bravo River, demanding ransom for their prisoners and rent for their land. A detachment of British troops sent to San Pedro was defeated by the Maya. In 1867, British troops marched into the Mayan villages in the Yalbac Hills and destroyed their villages, provision stores, and granaries in an attempt to drive them out of the district. The Maya returned, and in 1870, Canul and his men occupied the town of Corozal. In 1872, Canul and his men attacked the barracks at Orange Walk. Canul was mortally wounded in this battle and died on September 1, 1872. This was the last serious attack on the colony.

In the late nineteenth century, Mopán and Kekchí Maya fled from forced labour in Guatemala and came to British Honduras (modern-day Belize). They settled in several villages in southern British Honduras, mainly around San Antonio in the Toledo District. These Maya lacked communal rights and maintained a more traditional way of life, becoming less assimilated into the colony than the Maya of the north.

In recent times, the migration of Q'eqchi Maya people from Guatemala into southern Belize has resulted in border clashes between Guatemalan and Belizean security forces, leading to deadly confrontations. The Belizean government has portrayed this illegal immigration as a threat to Belizean sovereignty.

Belize's independence (1981)

Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, gained independence from the United Kingdom on 21 September 1981. The Belize Act 1981, which came into operation on 28 July 1981, was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom that made provisions for Belize to gain full independence and become a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm.

Prior to its independence, Belize had been a British colony since 1862, though European involvement in the region dates back much further. The first recorded European incursions in the region were made by Spanish conquistadors and missionaries in the 16th century. The British were also involved in the region, with British buccaneers cutting logwood along the coastline. In the 17th century, the Dutch, English, and French encroached on Spain's New World colonies, resorting to smuggling, piracy, and war to challenge and eventually destroy Spain's monopoly on trade and colonisation.

In the late 1710s, the first permanent British settlement was founded in Belize, and in 1763, the Treaty of Paris conceded to Britain the right to cut logwood in the area. The territory was formally termed the "Colony of British Honduras" in 1862, and it became a crown colony in 1871. Several constitutional changes were enacted to expand representative government, with internal self-government being granted in January 1964. The official name of the territory was changed from British Honduras to Belize in June 1973.

In the years leading up to Belize's independence, there were ongoing negotiations between Britain and Guatemala, which had long-standing claims to the territory. Guatemala repeatedly threatened to use force to take over Belize, and in 1963, Guatemala broke off talks and ended diplomatic relations with Britain. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, talks between Guatemala and Belize started and stopped abruptly. In 1975, the Belizean and British governments agreed on a new strategy to take the case for self-determination to various international forums, gaining the support of Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and Nicaragua. In November 1980, the United Nations passed a resolution demanding the independence of Belize.

Belize achieved full independence on 21 September 1981, without reaching an agreement with Guatemala. The United States recognised Belizean independence on 29 October 1981, when the Consulate General Belize was raised to Embassy status. Despite gaining independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean government.

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