Lyla Lindsey
Fiume, now known as Rijeka in Croatia, was once part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. It was a port city with a booming economy and a unique status as a semi-autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Hungary. With a population of Italians, Croats, Hungarians, and other ethnicities, Fiume's official languages were Italian, Hungarian, and German. The city's fate was a matter of international dispute in the early 20th century, with Italy and Yugoslavia both vying for control. The Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 recognised Fiume as a free state, but this was short-lived as Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes signed the Treaty of Rome in 1924, leading to the annexation of Fiume by Italy. After World War II, Fiume became part of Yugoslavia, and it is now known as Rijeka, Croatia.
Fiume, now called [Rijeka](
Fiume, Austria:
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Former Name | Fiume |
| Current Name | Rijeka |
| Location | Croatia |
| Status | Europe's most frequently disputed city in the 20th century; was a corpus separatum or semi-autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Hungary; existed as an independent state for about four years; became part of Yugoslavia in 1947 |
| Population | Soared from 17,000 to 55,000 in the half-century before World War I |
| Languages | Italian, Hungarian, German, Croatian, Venetian, Serbo-Croatian |
| Governance | Had its own council under a governor appointed by Budapest |
| Economy | Hungary's principal export-import entrepôt and embarkation point for emigrants to the Americas |
| Culture | Attracted artistic and political figures with various causes, including Irish Republicans and Flemish Nationalists |
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What You'll Learn
The Free State of Fiume
Fiume was a bustling port city with a unique history. Before the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy, it was a semi-autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Hungary, serving as its primary import-export hub and the main embarkation point for emigrants to the Americas. The city's population soared in the half-century before World War I, from 17,000 to 55,000. The city's core was predominantly Italian-speaking, while the surrounding suburbs in the Croatian hinterland spoke Serbo-Croatian.
Fiume's special status as a corpus separatum, or "separated body," was established by Queen Maria Theresa of Hungary in 1779. This granted the city greater autonomy than a Free Imperial City or a Hungarian county, comparable to the status of Trieste within the Austrian hereditary lands. Fiume's status as an exclave of Hungary ensured that the landlocked kingdom had access to a port.
After World War I, the status of Fiume became a major international issue. The city's inhabitants initially proclaimed it an independent city-state in 1918, but they desired annexation to victorious Italy. This demand was supported by Italy but disputed by the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia). The matter was left to be decided by the Allied powers at the Paris Peace Conference, leading to an inter-Allied occupation of the city.
On November 12, 1920, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes signed the Treaty of Rapallo, recognising the "complete freedom and independence" of the State of Fiume. This agreement was immediately recognised by the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. However, the Italian poet and general Gabriele D'Annunzio, who had occupied the city from 1919 to 1920, refused to acknowledge the treaty and was expelled by Italian forces in the "Bloody Christmas" actions of December 1920.
In April 1921, the electorate of Fiume approved a plan for a free state with an Italo-Fiuman-Yugoslav consortium to run the port. The first parliamentary elections were held, with the Autonomist Party, supported by the majority of Croats, defeating the pro-Italian National Bloc. Riccardo Zanella, the leader of the Autonomist Party, became president. However, this period of stability was short-lived, as Italian Fascists carried out a coup d'état in March 1922, forcing the legal government to flee.
On January 27, 1924, the Treaty of Rome was signed, annulling the previous agreement and annexing Fiume to Italy, while the neighbouring town of Sušak was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The government-in-exile of the Free State of Fiume considered this act invalid and continued its activities until the 1950s. After World War II, there were discussions about reinstating the old free state, but the Yugoslav Communist regime ultimately seized the opportunity to annex Fiume in 1947 with Stalin's support.
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The Fiume Crisis
The city of Fiume had a complex history even before the crisis. Since at least the 18th century, Croatia and Hungary, both part of the Habsburg monarchy, had competing claims on the city as part of their national territory. Fiume gained autonomy for the first time in 1719 when it was proclaimed a free port of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Charles VI. The city changed hands several times over the next century, with its status as an exclave of Hungary ensuring that the kingdom had access to a port despite being landlocked. By the 19th century, the city was primarily populated by Italians, with minorities of Croats, Hungarians, and other ethnicities.
After World War I and the demise of Austria-Hungary, the question of Fiume's status became a major international problem. The secret Treaty of London (1915) had assigned Fiume to Yugoslavia, but the Italians claimed it at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, citing the principle of self-determination. They ignored the suburb of Susak, which had a majority Yugoslav population, and instead claimed that the rest of Fiume had a majority Italian population. The dispute led to lawlessness, with the city changing hands between different groups and eventually leading to the landing of British and French troops.
The Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio took advantage of the confusing situation and occupied Fiume on 12 September 1919, beginning a 15-month period of occupation. D'Annunzio aimed to annex the territory to Italy and became an inspiration to Mussolini. Many local Italians supported the effort, fostering a narrative of nationalist fanaticism. However, others argue that practical realities, not nationalist ideals, were the primary drivers of the crisis. D'Annunzio's occupation caused the Italian government to reject a draft agreement proposed by the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, further complicating the situation.
The crisis was eventually resolved with the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920, which established the Free State of Fiume as an independent state. However, this solution was short-lived, as the rise of Fascism in Italy led to a new Italo-Yugoslav treaty in 1924 that recognised Fiume as Italian. The Fiume Crisis thus played a significant role in the rise of nationalism and the fall of the empire after World War I.
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The Liburnia Memorandum
The proposal of the Liburnia Memorandum was a response to the complex history of the region, which had been a part of the Roman Empire until its collapse in 476 AD. During the reign of Augustus, the border between the Liburnians and Histri was the Arsia River in Istria. Liburnia, or the land of the Liburnians, was a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in modern-day Croatia, with borders that shifted according to the extent of Liburnian dominance between the 11th and 1st century BC. The Liburnians were known for their skilled seamanship, allowing them to control navigable routes along the eastern Adriatic coast and hold strategic points such as the islands of Hvar and Lastovo.
The Liburnian cultural group developed at the end of the Bronze Age after the Balkan-Pannonian migrations and during the Iron Age in a region bordered by the Raša, Zrmanja, and Krka rivers. Their culture was distinct from their neighbouring cultural groups, the Histri in the northwest, the Iapodian in the north, and the Dalmatian in the southeast. The isolation of the Liburnians was due to their geographical separation from the hinterland and their focus on the sea, which was crucial for traffic circulation and territorial connections. This maritime orientation, combined with the transfer of Mediterranean cultural traditions, shaped the independent ethnic community of the Liburnians.
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The Treaty of Rapallo
The first Treaty of Rapallo was signed on November 12, 1920, between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (the later Yugoslavia). The treaty recognised the independence of the Free State of Fiume (now Rijeka in Croatia), which had previously been a corpus separatum, or semi-autonomous territory, within the Kingdom of Hungary. Fiume was a booming port city with a largely Italian-speaking population, and the treaty also included Italian renunciation of claims to Dalmatia except for the city of Zara (now Zadar, also in Croatia). The treaty was condemned by the Italian general Gabriele D'Annunzio, who had previously seized control of Rijeka and established the Italian Regency of Carnaro. Despite this, the Free State of Fiume was established, although it was short-lived, with Italy annexing the city in 1924 under the Treaty of Rome.
The second Treaty of Rapallo was signed on April 16, 1922, between the German Reich and Soviet Russia. This treaty was a major victory for both nations, as they renounced all territorial and financial claims against each other and established friendly diplomatic relations. The treaty was negotiated by Russian Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin and German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau and included pledges to increase economic ties. The Treaty of Rapallo provided diplomatic cover for secret military cooperation between Germany and Russia, which was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
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The Yugoslav Communist regime
The port city of Fiume (now Rijeka in Croatia) was once a corpus separatum, or semi-autonomous territory, within the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a booming city, serving as Hungary's principal import-export hub and the main point of embarkation for emigrants to the Americas and beyond. The city's core was predominantly Italian-speaking, while the suburbs that sprang up in the Croatian hinterland spoke Serbo-Croat.
After World War I and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the status of Fiume became a major international issue. The Yugoslav case for control of the city was supported by President Woodrow Wilson on the grounds of 'national self-determination'. However, the people of Fiume generally opposed incorporation into Yugoslavia and desired union with Italy, largely for pragmatic reasons related to their semi-autonomous past and economic considerations.
In 1920, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes signed the Treaty of Rapallo, recognising the "complete freedom and independence" of the State of Fiume. This "Free State of Fiume" existed as an independent state until 1924 when, with the Treaty of Rome, it was annexed by Italy. Despite this, the government-in-exile of the Free State continued its activities and advocated for the reinstatement of the old free state even after World War II.
In the aftermath of World War II, the Yugoslav Communist regime, led by Josip Broz Tito, seized the opportunity to annex Fiume with the support of Stalin during the Paris Peace Conference. On 9 and 19 August 1946, Yugoslavia shot down two American airplanes flying in its airspace, causing deep distrust in the United States and calls for military intervention. Tito's regime closely followed the Stalinist Soviet model of economic development and embarked on a process of nationalisation and industrialisation.
Yugoslavia became a one-party state and was considered a model of Communist orthodoxy in its early years. The new regime mobilised thousands of people, especially the youth, into work brigades to rebuild the country. Women played a prominent role in the Partisans and were granted the right to vote and hold office in 1945. The country received significant financial aid for reconstruction, including from the United Nations. Tito also launched a Five-Year Plan modelled after the Soviet Union's, focusing on heavy industry and arms production to achieve self-sufficiency.
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Frequently asked questions
Fiume, now called Rijeka, is located in modern-day Croatia.
Fiume was a port city and a semi-autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Hungary before the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy. It was the 20th century's most frequently disputed city in Europe, with its future being contested by Italy, Yugoslavia, and the local desire for autonomy.
The dispute over Fiume was resolved through a series of treaties. The Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 recognized it as a free state. In 1924, the Treaty of Rome led to the annexation of Fiume by Italy. After World War II, the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 resulted in Fiume becoming part of Yugoslavia.
The Fiume dispute had significant political and cultural consequences. It contributed to the complex ethnic and national tensions in the region. The desire of Fiumians for autonomy, the rise of nationalism, and the involvement of notable figures such as Gabriele D'Annunzio, Benito Mussolini, and Woodrow Wilson, all played a role in shaping the outcome.
