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Oceania is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, it is generally considered a continent, with mainland Australia as its continental landmass. Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. The original population of Australia, the Aboriginal Australians, began arriving from Southeast Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. They are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as Australasians. The original population of Oceania, therefore, likely originated from the migration of Homo sapiens through Southeast Asia, with deep-rooted connections to Australasia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Original population of Australia | Aboriginal Australians |
| Where did they originate from? | Aboriginal Australians migrated from Southeast Asia |
| When did they migrate? | 50,000 to 65,000 years ago |
| Where did they settle? | Large sections of the Australian continental shelf, Tasmania and New Guinea (then known as Sahul) |
| What is the evidence? | Genetic evidence, fossil evidence, and archaeological evidence |
| What do we know about their lifestyle? | They used fire-stick farming to clear vegetation and create open grasslands for food sources |
| What languages did they speak? | 250 distinct languages |
| What is their current population? | 3.8% of the Australian population (as per the 2021 census) |
| Original population of Oceania | Oceanians, including Papuans, Melanesians, and Polynesians |
| Where did they originate from? | Oceania is generally considered a continent, with Australia as its continental landmass |
| What is the current population of Oceania? | Around 46.3 million as of 2024 |
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What You'll Learn
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians migrated from Southeast Asia
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians are believed to have migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch. They are thought to be among the first in the world to have completed sea voyages. At the time, Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul. As sea levels rose, the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated.
Aboriginal Australians are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as "Australasians" and can be described as "a deeply branching East Asian lineage". There is evidence that Aboriginal Australians may carry ancestry from an earlier human diaspora that originated 75,000 to 62,000 years ago. This diaspora is estimated to have contributed around 2% of the ancestry of modern Aboriginal Australians.
Genomic studies suggest that the peopling of Australia happened between 43,000 and 60,000 years ago. A 2021 study mapped likely migration routes and found that it took 5,000-6,000 years to reach Tasmania, then part of the continent, after making landfall in the Kimberley region of Western Australia around 60,000 years ago. The study suggests that the path of population movement may have followed two main routes from New Guinea, with one route going into Kimberley, Pilbara, and Arnhem Land, and then to the Great Sandy Desert before moving towards the center and southeast of the continent.
The first major genomic study of Aboriginal Australians confirmed that all present-day non-African populations are descended from the same single wave of migrants who left Africa around 72,000 years ago. This study found that the Papuan and Australian ancestors diverged early from the rest, around 58,000 years ago. By comparison, European and Asian ancestral groups only became distinct in the genetic record around 42,000 years ago.
There is also evidence of gene flow from India to Australia. A 2013 study found signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes and the existence of a Y chromosome (male) lineage, designated haplogroup C*, with the most recent common ancestor about 5,000 years ago. However, a 2016 study excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia, finding a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative.
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The 'Out of Africa' migration
The "Out of Africa" migration theory states that the first humans to arrive in Australia came from a migration of Homo sapiens through Southeast Asia. These people shared a single genetic lineage and were the descendants of a population that originated in Africa. This migration is believed to have occurred around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, with some evidence suggesting an earlier migration of 75,000 to 62,000 years ago.
During this migration, Homo sapiens are believed to have interbred with other hominin species, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, with Denisovan DNA making up about 0.2% of mainland Asian and Native American DNA. This interbreeding also occurred in Eastern Asia, where the Denisovans lived, resulting in about 3-5% of Denisovan DNA in Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians.
The migration route taken by these early humans is thought to have followed the southern coast of Asia, with some groups settling in Oceania by about 50,000 years ago. Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul, at this time due to lower sea levels. As sea levels rose, the people on this landmass became isolated, with some remaining on the Australian mainland and others on Tasmania and smaller offshore islands.
The Aboriginal Australians are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as "Australasians" and are described as "a deeply branching East Asian lineage". A recent genomic study of Aboriginal Australians confirmed that all present-day non-African populations, including Aboriginal Australians, are descended from the same single wave of migrants who left Africa around 72,000 years ago.
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Interbreeding with Denisovans
The original population of Australia and Oceania, collectively known as East Eurasian Core, are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as "Australasians". They are described as "a deeply branching East Asian lineage".
The commonly accepted date for the diversification of modern humans following the Out of Africa migration is placed at 60–50,000 years ago. However, there is evidence that Aboriginal Australians may carry ancestry from an earlier human diaspora (xOoA) that originated 75,000 to 62,000 years ago. This earlier group has been estimated to have contributed around 2% ancestry to modern Aboriginal Australians.
The original population of Australia and Oceania has also been found to have interbred with Denisovans, an archaic hominin group from Siberia. This interbreeding has resulted in about 3-5% of Denisovan DNA in the modern-day descendants of these populations, including Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians. This is supported by the presence of high levels of Denisovan DNA in modern Papuans and Australians, with some studies reporting up to 30 to 40% more Denisovan ancestry in certain populations.
The presence of Denisovan DNA in these populations suggests that interbreeding occurred as these populations migrated towards Australia and Papua New Guinea. This is further supported by the absence of Denisovan DNA in the west (Onge and Jehai) or northwest (the Eurasian continent), indicating that interbreeding may have occurred in Southeast Asia itself.
The timing of introgression into Oceanian populations likely occurred after Eurasians and Oceanians split roughly 58,000 years ago and before Papuan and Aboriginal Australians split from each other about 37,000 years ago. This is also supported by a 2011 study that found Denisovan DNA in Near Oceanians, Polynesians, Fijians, Eastern Indonesians, and certain groups from the Philippines, indicating that Denisovan introgression occurred within the Pacific region rather than on the Asian mainland.
In summary, the interbreeding between the original population of Australia and Oceania with Denisovans has contributed a small but significant percentage of Denisovan DNA to modern-day descendants, providing valuable insights into the earliest human migrations and settlement waves in the region.
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European colonisation
The original population of Australia and Oceania is believed to have originated from Africa. The 'Recent African Origin' model suggests that modern human traits emerged in Africa, and while interbreeding occurred during migrations, these had minimal impacts on the genetic traits of modern humans. The 'Out of Africa' theory further supports this, stating that the first humans to arrive in Australia came from a migration of Homo sapiens through Southeast Asia. These people belonged to a single genetic lineage and were descendants of a population that originated in Africa.
Now, let's focus on the topic of European colonisation in Australia and Oceania:
The colonisation of Australia and Oceania by Europeans began in the 18th and 19th centuries, with the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in Botany Bay, Sydney, in January 1788. This marked the establishment of a penal colony, bringing approximately 1,300 colonists, including convicts and officials, to the region. The British claimed ownership of the land, with Lieutenant James Cook charting the east coast of Australia and claiming it for Great Britain in 1770. This initiated a period of British colonisation, with the establishment of further colonies and the exploration of the continent's interior.
The European presence in Australia and Oceania had a significant impact on the indigenous populations, including the Aboriginal Australians. The relative isolation of these indigenous groups for thousands of years left them vulnerable to introduced diseases, resulting in outbreaks that devastated their numbers. Additionally, the colonisation process led to violent conflicts and the dispossession of their traditional lands, causing a decline in the Aboriginal population and disruption to their cultures.
During the 19th century, gold rushes and the development of agricultural industries brought further waves of immigration to Australia and Oceania. People from Europe, America, and China were drawn to the region, leading to a rapid increase in the population. By the mid-19th century, over 160,000 convicts had been sent to Australia, and the European population surpassed 100,000. The colony of Victoria legislated restrictions on Chinese entry as early as 1855, and other Australian colonies soon followed suit, aiming to curb the influx of Chinese workers.
The process of colonisation also involved the Christianisation of the region, with Torres Strait Islanders welcoming Christian missionaries in 1871. The political geography of the region began to solidify in 1863, and autonomous parliamentary democracies were established in the British colonies from the mid-19th century onwards. In 1901, the colonies voted to unite, forming the Commonwealth of Australia, with the country participating in both world wars as part of the British Empire and later the Commonwealth.
In summary, the colonisation of Australia and Oceania by Europeans had far-reaching consequences, shaping the demographics, politics, and culture of the region. It led to the displacement and decimation of indigenous populations, while also attracting immigrants from various parts of the world, resulting in the diverse and highly urbanised societies seen in Australia and Oceania today.
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Oceania's indigenous populations
Oceania is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, it is generally considered a continent, while mainland Australia is regarded as its continental landmass. Oceania spans the Eastern and Western hemispheres and is at the centre of the water hemisphere. It has a land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) and a population of around 46.3 million as of 2024.
Indigenous Australians, also known as Aboriginal Australians, are the indigenous people of Australia. They are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as "Australasians". The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australians migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch, making them among the first in the world to have completed sea voyages. They lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when the sea levels were lower. At that time, Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul. As sea levels rose, the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated.
There is some debate about the role that interbreeding had in the origins of modern humans. The 'Recent African Origin' model states that modern human traits emerged in Africa and while interbreeding occurred during migrations around the world, it had minimal impacts on the genetic traits of modern humans. The 'Assimilation' model, on the other hand, emphasizes interbreeding, claiming that some Homo sapiens traits evolved in Africa, but many new traits evolved through interbreeding with other archaic populations outside of Africa.
In the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous, including Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words added, creating Australian Aboriginal English. Some Aboriginal people, especially those living in remote areas, are multilingual. Of the original 250-400 Aboriginal languages, many are now endangered or extinct, although some efforts are being made at language revival.
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Frequently asked questions
The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australians migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch, making them among the first in the world to have completed sea voyages. They lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when sea levels were lower. Australia was joined to New Guinea, forming a landmass called Sahul.
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving in Australia between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. The Aboriginal population faced significant changes in the climate and environment.
Oceania is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Oceania is generally considered a continent outside of the English-speaking world, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its continental landmass. Aboriginal Australians are genetically most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Papuans and Melanesians, who are collectively referred to as "Australasians".
