Leslie Massey
Jews have been present in Austria since at least the 3rd century CE. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria, and the Nazis began to apply anti-Jewish legislation, expropriating Jewish property and evicting Jews from the country. Many Jews sought visas to escape Nazi-occupied Austria, and some foreign officials risked their careers to approve these applications. Between March 1938 and September 1939, about 85,000 Jewish refugees reached the United States, while others went to Shanghai, China, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, Bolivia, and the Dominican Republic.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Jews who left Austria between May 1939 and mid-1942 | 28,000 |
| Total number of Jews who left Austria | 28,000 |
| Countries that issued visas to Jews | China, the United States, Bolivia, the Dominican Republic, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal |
| Approximate number of visas issued by China | Thousands |
| Number of Jews who reached the United States between March 1938 and September 1939 | 85,000 |
| Number of visas issued by the United States under the existing immigration quota | 27,000 |
| Number of applicants for US visas by June 1939 | 300,000 |
| Number of Jews who went to Shanghai | 17,000 |
| Number of Jews who went to Switzerland | 30,000 |
| Number of Jews who went to the Iberian Peninsula | 100,000 |
| Number of Jews who went to Bolivia | 30,000 |
| Number of Jews who went to the Dominican Republic | Significant |
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What You'll Learn
- Jews with visas went to China, the US, and Shanghai
- The Chinese consul to Austria, Ho Feng-Shan, approved thousands of visas
- The US was a popular destination, but it had strict immigration policies
- Jews also went to Bolivia, Switzerland, and the Iberian Peninsula
- Some Jews with visas were deported to concentration camps in Poland or remained in Austria
Jews with visas went to China, the US, and Shanghai
The Austrian Jewish community faced persecution and terror following the annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938. As a result, many Jews with visas fled Austria and went to China, the United States, and Shanghai.
China
Before the arrival of Austrian Jews in Shanghai, China, the city was already home to two main Jewish groups. The first was a smaller group of about 700 Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors had come to China from Iraq as traders in the mid-1800s. The second group was larger, consisting of a few thousand Ashkenazi Jews who had fled to China as refugees from Russia during the Revolution of 1917.
Shanghai
Shanghai, China, became a haven for Austrian and German Jews fleeing Nazi persecution. Between 1933 and 1938, an estimated 17,000 Austrian and German Jews fled to Shanghai, with the number of refugees jumping from about 1,500 at the end of 1938 to nearly 17,000 by the end of 1939. Shanghai was one of the few places in the world that did not require a visa for entry until August 1939, making it a critical refuge for those escaping persecution.
The United States
Between 1,500 and 3,500 Austrian Jews applied for immigration visas to the United States. While President Franklin Roosevelt was sympathetic to their plight, he believed he lacked public support to request that Congress change the quota system for admitting immigrants. Despite this, some Austrian Jews did make it to the United States, including Ernest, who fled to Shanghai with his mother in 1939 and later moved to the US in 1947 with his wife, whom he met in Shanghai.
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The Chinese consul to Austria, Ho Feng-Shan, approved thousands of visas
In 1938, Ho was the consul-general at the Chinese consulate in Vienna when Germany's Nazi regime annexed Austria. This prompted many Austrian Jews to seek visas from foreign governments as a means of escaping Nazi persecution. Ho issued transit visas to Shanghai, which was under Japanese occupation but exempting foreign concessions. These visas allowed Jews to leave Austria, with many Jewish families travelling to Shanghai and then onward to Hong Kong and Australia. It is important to note that at the time, a visa was not required to enter Shanghai, but it allowed Jews to exit Austria.
Ho Feng-Shan issued these visas against the orders of his superior, Chen Jie, the Chinese ambassador to Berlin. Chen Jia wanted to maintain good diplomatic relations with Germany and did not want to undermine Hitler's anti-Semitic policies. Ho's actions angered his supervisor, and he received a "demerit and a black mark" in his personnel file for disobeying orders. Despite the risks, Ho continued to issue visas until he was recalled to China in May 1940.
The exact number of visas Ho provided is unknown, but it is estimated to be in the thousands. Ho issued the 200th visa in June 1938 and the 1906th visa on 27 October 1938. Ho's actions were recognised posthumously when he was awarded the title "Righteous Among the Nations" by the Israeli organisation Yad Vashem in 2000 or 2001.
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The US was a popular destination, but it had strict immigration policies
The United States was a popular destination for Jews fleeing Austria, with about 85,000 Jewish refugees reaching the country between March 1938 and September 1939. However, the US had strict immigration policies, and the majority of visa applicants were unsuccessful. In late 1938, 125,000 applicants lined up outside US consulates, hoping to obtain 27,000 visas under the existing immigration quota. By June 1939, the number of applicants had increased to over 300,000, with most being turned away.
The US was not the only country with strict immigration policies at the time. As the number of hospitable destinations dwindled, tens of thousands of Austrian Jews emigrated to Shanghai, which did not require a visa. During the second half of 1941, even as unconfirmed reports of the mass murder perpetrated by the Nazis began to surface, the US Department of State placed even stricter limits on immigration based on national security concerns.
Great Britain also limited its intake of immigrants in 1938–1939, although it did permit the entry of some 10,000 Jewish children through a special Kindertransport program. Switzerland took in approximately 30,000 Jews but turned back about the same number at the border. Spain and Portugal also had limited intake, with Spain enacting a law in 2015 to allow Sephardic Jews with demonstrable roots in the country and knowledge of the Spanish language to receive passports through October 2019.
Despite the strict immigration policies of the United States, some Jews were still able to reach the country. For example, Elana Dunn-Rennert, an American-Israeli living in Vienna, has to regularly renew her visa. Similarly, Egon Schwarz, a German literary scholar, fled Austria with his family in 1938 and eventually made his way to the United States, where he studied and taught at Harvard and Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.
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Jews also went to Bolivia, Switzerland, and the Iberian Peninsula
Jews fleeing Austria sought refuge in several countries, including Bolivia, Switzerland, and the Iberian Peninsula.
Bolivia
Between 1938 and 1941, more than 20,000 Jewish refugees entered Bolivia, an Andean nation in Latin America. This was largely thanks to Mauricio (Moritz) Hochschild, a German-Jewish mining magnate with political ties to Bolivian President Germán Busch. After the Chaco War with Paraguay, Busch sought to revive the Bolivian economy by admitting European immigrants. Hochschild facilitated a regular flow of German and Austrian Jewish immigrants, who obtained visas from five Bolivian consulates in Europe (Zurich, Paris, London, Berlin, and Vienna). These refugees arrived by ship in Arica, Chile, and were then taken by train to La Paz, Bolivia, in what became known as the Express Judio ("Jewish Express"). Many subsequently travelled illegally across Bolivia's borders into neighbouring countries, especially Argentina.
Switzerland
Switzerland was one of the main havens for Jews fleeing Austria following the Anschluss. Thousands of Austrian refugees, primarily Jewish, entered Switzerland in the first few weeks after the annexation. However, on March 28, 1938, the Swiss Federal authorities reintroduced the requirement of a consular visa for all Austrian passport holders, both Jewish and non-Jewish, wishing to enter the country. This measure was justified as a means to protect against the immigration of foreign Jews and to prevent the creation of conditions favourable to an antisemitic movement in Switzerland. Despite this, some Swiss officials, such as police chief Paul Grüninger, helped Jewish refugees settle illicitly in the country.
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula, specifically Spain, was another destination for Jews fleeing Nazi-occupied Europe. Mexican diplomat Gilberto Bosques Saldivar played a crucial role in rescuing Jews as a consul in Marseille, a port city in Vichy France. He directed consular officials to issue visas to any refugee wishing to flee to Mexico, saving tens of thousands of lives.
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Some Jews with visas were deported to concentration camps in Poland or remained in Austria
The history of Austrian Jews is a long one, with evidence of their presence in the region dating back to at least the 3rd century CE. In 1938, Austria's Jewish population was around 170,000, with approximately 80,000 people of mixed Jewish-Christian heritage. Vienna was a significant hub of Jewish culture and education, as well as Zionist thought. However, the community's existence was threatened when Germany annexed Austria in March 1938. This event, known as the Anschluss, marked the beginning of terror for Austrian Jews.
The Nazis quickly applied anti-Jewish legislation, aiming to exclude Jews from economic, cultural, and social life in Austria. Jewish-owned businesses were closed or confiscated, and Jews were forced to move to specific districts, such as Leopoldstadt in Vienna. Adolf Eichmann, an SS officer, established a system to evict Jews and confiscate their assets. As a result, nearly half of Austria's Jewish population had emigrated by May 17, 1939, leaving approximately 121,000 Jews in the country.
Some Jews with visas were able to escape to various destinations. Many sought refuge in the United States, with about 85,000 Jewish refugees reaching the country between March 1938 and September 1939. However, obtaining visas was challenging, and most applicants were unsuccessful. Other Jews with visas fled to Shanghai, which did not require a visa and admitted 17,000 Jews. Some also found refuge in China, with the help of the Chinese consul to Austria, Ho Feng-Shan, who rapidly approved thousands of visa applications.
Despite the emigration of many Austrian Jews, the fate of those who remained or were deported to concentration camps was grim. The Mauthausen Concentration Camp, located near Linz, was the main camp in Austria. Additionally, in 1939, the Nazis initiated the annihilation of the Jewish population, deporting about 6,000 notable community members to the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps. Between February and March 1941, 5,000 Jews were deported to Poland, and by the end of that winter, another 4,500 Jews were sent to concentration and extermination camps in Nazi-occupied Poland.
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Frequently asked questions
Jews with visas went to various countries from Austria, including the United States, China, Switzerland, the Iberian Peninsula, and the United Kingdom.
Between May 1939 and mid-1942, about 28,000 Jews managed to leave Austria.
Jews seeking exit visas from Austria had to stand in long lines, pay an exit fee, and register their property, which was often confiscated upon departure.
Yes, Shanghai, China, did not require a visa, and admitted 17,000 Jews.
Some Jews also sought to reach Palestine, but immigration was limited due to British restrictions.
