Leslie Massey
The Napoleonic Wars, a series of wars between Napoleonic France and other European powers, lasted for 23 years and ended with the Battle of Waterloo. During this time, Napoleon I embarked on several campaigns against Austria, including the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802) and the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809. In 1805, Napoleon marched his army into Germany, surrounding an Austrian army at Ulm and advancing to Vienna, which he took in November. He then defeated the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. Napoleon's campaigns in Austria were part of a broader conflict between France and other European powers, including Great Britain, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year | 1805 |
| Reason | Austrian and Russian belief that an alliance would deter Napoleon from attacking |
| Outcome | Napoleon's victory, Austrian surrender and peace treaty |
| Battles | Battle of Ulm, Battle of Austerlitz |
| Locations | Germany, Italy, Vienna, Moravia |
| Peace Treaty | Treaty of Pressburg |
| Losses | Austria ceded Venice to Napoleon's Italian kingdom, Tirol to Bavaria, and other lands to Napoleon's clients |
| Coalition | Fifth Coalition |
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What You'll Learn
Napoleon's Italian campaign
The Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1801) were a series of conflicts fought principally in Northern Italy between the French Revolutionary Army and a Coalition of Austria, Russia, Piedmont-Sardinia, and other Italian states. The Italian campaign of 1796–1797, waged by a young Napoleon Bonaparte, was a decisive campaign in the French Revolutionary Wars. It led to the defeat of Austria, the beginning of French control of northern Italy, and the end of the war. It was also important for its role in the creation of Napoleon Bonaparte, launching him to new heights of fame and power.
The Italian campaign of 1796–1797, also known as the First Italian Campaign, was a series of military operations in Italy during the War of the First Coalition. Led by Napoleon Bonaparte, the First French Republic's Army of Italy fought and defeated the armies of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Habsburg monarchy, and the Papal States, as well as various revolts, notably in the Republic of Venice. The campaign opened with the Montenotte campaign on 10 April 1796, where Bonaparte descended from the Alps into Italy and achieved a rapid series of victories that decisively knocked Piedmont-Sardinia out of the First Coalition.
Napoleon then chased the Austrian army across Lombardy, culminating in the French victory at Lodi on 10 May 1796. After putting down revolts in Pavia and Milan, the focus of Napoleon's war in Italy shifted in June 1796 to the long and difficult siege of Mantua. Napoleon planned to break through the enemy lines at Borghetto sul Mincio, covering the attack with a feint on Peschiera del Garda. The movements were hampered by insurrections that broke out in Milan and Pavia, so Napoleon was forced to regain control of the situation. On 28 May, he drove the Austrians out of Borghetto sul Mincio, forcing them to fall back on the Adige. While Beaulieu was retreating towards Trento, the first siege of Mantua began, where 12,000 Austrians were trapped, and the second phase of the Italian campaign ended with Bonaparte as master of the Lombard plain and almost the entire Quadrilateral (except Mantua).
The Battle of Arcole (15–17 November 1796) was a three-day battle during the Italian campaign where Napoleon Bonaparte was victorious. Napoleon won the Italian campaign by earning the love of his soldiers and by providing for them. He divided the enemy armies whenever possible and attacked them each in turn, while surprising everyone with his rapid movement. The Italian campaign ended in May 1797 with the fall of the Republic of Venice, which had been a neutral party during the conflict.
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The Austrian army
The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army, or Kaiserliche-Königliche Heer, was the armed force of the Habsburg monarchy under its last monarch, the Habsburg Emperor Francis II. When the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, the army assumed its title as the troops of the Austrian Empire under Emperor Francis I of Austria.
In 1805, the Austrian army was inadequately equipped, insufficiently trained, under-strengthened, and poorly led when it went to war against the French. This was due to miscalculations by foreign ministers, who believed that an alliance with Russia in 1804 would deter Napoleon from attacking either of the eastern empires. Napoleon, however, quickly marched his army into Germany, surrounding an Austrian army at Ulm and forcing its surrender. He then advanced to Vienna, which he took in November 1805, before moving into Moravia, where he defeated the Austrians and the oncoming Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805.
In the aftermath of this defeat, Austria concluded peace with the Treaty of Pressburg on December 26, 1805, surrendering Venice to Napoleon's Italian kingdom, Tirol to Bavaria, and several other lands to Napoleon's clients. Despite this loss, the Austrian army made several improvements between 1805 and 1809, enhancing its combat capabilities. Archduke Charles, who had led the Austrian army at Ulm, dismissed ineffective generals, strengthened the Quartermaster General Staff, and introduced superior tactical formations. He also improved the status of the military train and, despite his initial opposition, established the Landwehr, a national militia. By 1809, the Austrian artillery reserves matched those of the French.
In 1809, the Habsburg Empire launched a campaign with a large military contingent of about 630,000 men. However, this powerful army was stopped by one of Napoleon's brilliant and hazardous campaigns, and it was battered and weakened until the following years. In April 1809, Archduke Charles and the regular Austrian army inflicted Napoleon's first defeat on the field of battle at Aspern, across the Danube from Vienna. However, Napoleon regrouped and defeated Charles in July at the Battle of Wagram, leading to the Treaty of Schönbrunn in October 1809, where the monarchy surrendered more territory.
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The Battle of Austerlitz
In the lead-up to the battle, Napoleon gave the impression that his army was weak and desired a negotiated peace. He had about 53,000 French troops ready to take Austerlitz and the Olmütz road, while the Allied forces numbered around 89,000. However, Napoleon had backup within supporting distance, which would bring his total troop count to 75,000. Napoleon sent General Savary to the Allied headquarters to deliver a message expressing his desire to avoid battle, while secretly examining the Allied forces. As expected, this was seen as a sign of weakness. Napoleon furthered this impression by ordering Soult to abandon Austerlitz and the Pratzen Heights, creating an appearance of chaos during the retreat that would induce the enemy to occupy the Heights. Napoleon also requested a personal interview with Alexander I, where he met with the Tsar's aide, Prince Peter Dolgorukov, and intentionally expressed anxiety and hesitation. Dolgorukov reported this weakness to the Tsar, and the Allied forces soon fell into Napoleon's trap, with many officers, including the Tsar's aides, supporting an immediate attack.
The battle took place about six miles southeast of the city of Brno, with the northern part of the battlefield dominated by Santon Hill and Žuráň Hill, both overlooking the vital Olomouc/Brno road. The centrepiece of the area was the Pratzen Heights, a gently sloping hill. Napoleon recognised the importance of the Pratzen Heights and decided to protect this position. However, the young Tsar ordered the IV Corps to withdraw from the Heights, which quickly pushed the Allied army into a grave situation. At 8:45 am, Napoleon ordered Soult to advance, adding, "One sharp blow and the war is over." A dense fog clouded the advance of St. Hilaire's French division, but as they ascended the slope, the legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' ripped the mist apart and encouraged them forward.
The French army, led by Napoleon I, fought against a Russian and Austrian army under the command of General M.I. Kutuzov. The French army suffered around 9,000 casualties, while the Russian and Austrian allied forces had about 15,000 casualties and 11,000 troops captured. Napoleon's victory brought the War of the Third Coalition to an end, with the Peace of Pressburg signed by the French and Austrians later that month.
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The War of the Fifth Coalition
In early 1809, encouraged by Britain's success in the Peninsula, Austria opened the war with a surprise attack on Bavaria. The Austrian advance was initially successful, but their momentum was checked at the Battle of Eckmühl, where Napoleon arrived with reinforcements and forced the Austrian forces to retreat. Napoleon then occupied Vienna on May 13, 1809, for the second time in four years. The Austrian Army, under the command of Archduke Charles, retreated across the Danube and took up defensive positions. The French casualties at the Battle of Wagram, which took place on July 5-6, 1809, numbered around 37,000, while Austrian casualties approached 40,000. The Austrian army was forced to retreat to Bohemia, and on July 12, 1809, the armistice of Znaim was signed, ending the conflict between Austria and France.
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Napoleon's invasion of Germany
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between 1803 and 1815, pitting the First French Empire and its allies against a series of European coalitions. During this period, Napoleon's invasion of Germany was a significant campaign that had a profound impact on the course of the wars and the subsequent development of German nationalism.
In 1805, Napoleon made a brilliant strategic move by marching his army into Germany, catching the Austrians off guard as they had anticipated an invasion of Italy. Napoleon's forces quickly surrounded and compelled the surrender of an Austrian army at Ulm before advancing to Vienna, which he captured in November 1805. He then moved into Moravia, where he defeated a combined Austrian and Russian force at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. This victory led to the immediate conclusion of peace with Austria and the Treaty of Pressburg, in which Austria ceded territories to Napoleon's kingdom and clients.
The invasion of Germany was significant because it demonstrated Napoleon's military genius and the effectiveness of his army. It also highlighted the disorganization and inadequate preparation of the Austrian army at the time. The campaign's success allowed Napoleon to establish dominance in Central Europe and exert influence over the German states. He reorganized Germany into 39 larger states and established the Confederation of Rhine, a league of German states under French domination.
The Confederation of Rhine played a crucial role in the growth of German nationalism. The German states realized that their small size and political divisions made them vulnerable to strong aggressors like Napoleon. To drive out Napoleon's forces, the German princes stirred up nationalistic feelings, and the states cooperated politically and militarily. This cooperation contributed to the development of a common German identity and the eventual emergence of a unified Germany. Napoleon's invasion of Germany thus had long-lasting impacts on the region's political and social landscape, influencing the course of German history.
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Frequently asked questions
Napoleon started his campaign against Austria in 1796.
Napoleon's campaign against Austria was a success. He defeated the Austrian army at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805 and forced them to conclude peace through the Treaty of Pressburg.
Napoleon's campaign against Austria was part of the Napoleonic Wars, which resulted in French hegemony over most of Europe. The defeat of Austria forced them to cede territories, including Venice and Tirol, to Napoleon's kingdom and clients.
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