Leslie Massey
The settlement of Australia by non-Indigenous people began with the arrival of the First Fleet in January 1788, marking the beginning of European colonisation. However, the Indigenous Aboriginal population has a deep and ancient connection to the land, with archaeological and genetic evidence indicating their presence in Australia for at least 40,000 to 50,000 years. The Aboriginal people of Australia, with their diverse societies and cultures, had thrived and flourished in the land for countless generations before the arrival of European settlers, shaping a rich and profound history.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year of first settlement | 1788 |
| Number of people in the First Fleet | 1,300-1,530 |
| Number of convicts in the First Fleet | 700-736 |
| Date of arrival of the first free settlers | 1793 |
| Year of the first governor of New South Wales | 1788 |
| Year of the first international sporting team from Australia | 1863 |
| Year of the first free settlement | 1829 |
| Year of the last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers | 1928 |
| Estimated total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict (1788-1928) | 1,700-3,000 settlers; 17,000-30,000 Aboriginal people |
| Year of the first penal colony | 1788 |
| Year of the first semi-elected Legislative Council | 1842 |
| Year Britain granted Van Diemen's Land, South Australia, and Victoria semi-representative Legislative Councils | 1850 |
| Year of the earliest human occupation of Australia | 48,000-50,000 years ago |
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What You'll Learn
Modern humans reached Australia by 50,000 years ago
The settlement of Australia by modern humans is considered one of their greatest achievements, as it provides the first unequivocal evidence of a major sea crossing. However, the exact motive and circumstances of their arrival remain a subject of conjecture. It could have been a deliberate attempt to settle new territory or an accidental outcome of being caught in monsoon winds.
The journey to Australia was likely made possible by lower sea levels during the Ice Age, reducing the travelling distance between Timor and Sahul to about 90 kilometres. While the specific boats used for the voyage have not been preserved, rafts made of bamboo, a common material in Asia, have been suggested as the most likely craft.
The early human settlers of Australia are believed to have originated from Southeast Asia, where archaeological evidence indicates the presence of modern humans by 70,000 years ago. The colonisation of Australia had a profound impact on the continent's Indigenous peoples, leading to a decline in their population and disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and dispossession of their traditional lands.
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The First Fleet arrived in 1788
The First Fleet, comprising 11 ships, arrived in Australia in 1788, marking the beginning of European colonisation. The fleet, which set off from Portsmouth, England, in May 1787, carried over 1,400 convicts, marines, sailors, colonial officials, and free settlers. It travelled over 24,000 kilometres (15,000 miles) and took more than 250 days to reach Australia.
The First Fleet, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived at Botany Bay on 18 or 20 January 1788. Botany Bay was initially deemed unsuitable for establishing a colony due to its exposure, shallow waters, and scarce freshwater. On 22 January, Captain Phillip sailed north to Port Jackson, where he selected a sheltered site for anchorage and named it Sydney Cove, after the British Home Secretary, Lord Sydney.
The Fleet arrived at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788, establishing the first permanent European colony on the Australian continent. This date is now celebrated as Australia Day. The settlement of Sydney Cove, later renamed Circular Quay, marked the beginning of convict transportation to Australia, which lasted until 1868. During this period, over 150,000 convicts were transported to New South Wales and other Australian colonies.
The arrival of the First Fleet had a significant impact on the Aboriginal population, particularly the Eora nation, the traditional owners of the land in the Sydney region. The Aboriginal people of Sydney mostly avoided the newcomers in the first two years, but violence and conflict soon emerged, primarily over land and food. The relative isolation of the Indigenous population made them more vulnerable to introduced diseases, and an outbreak of smallpox in 1789 devastated the Aboriginal community, killing about half of the Aboriginal population in the Sydney region.
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Aboriginal people's resistance to British settlement
Archaeological evidence shows that modern humans had spread to Australia by at least 50,000 years ago. The first British settlement in Australia was established in January 1788 when 11 ships, known as the First Fleet, arrived in Sydney Cove carrying about 1,300 colonists. The British settlement of Australia led to the dispossession and devastation of the Indigenous population, their lands, and their way of life.
The Aboriginal population of the Sydney region is estimated to have been about 3,000 people when the British arrived. The Indigenous population before European settlement is estimated to have been between 300,000 and 750,000 people. The relative isolation of the Indigenous population meant that they had little resistance to introduced diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and measles. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half of the Aboriginal population in the Sydney region. Many Aboriginal people also died in random killings, punitive expeditions, and organised massacres.
The British government instructed the colonists to respect Indigenous rights, but as the colony spread inland from the coast, competition for land and resources bred conflict. The settlements initially occupied small amounts of land, and there was little conflict between the colonisers and Indigenous peoples. However, fighting broke out when the settlements expanded, disrupting traditional Indigenous food-gathering activities. The Europeans believed the land was free to claim as there were no signs of land ownership such as fences, crops, or animals. They called it "terra nullius", meaning land belonging to no one.
The Aboriginal resistance to British settlement in Australia took the form of guerrilla warfare, with individuals or small groups of settlers being ambushed and isolated settlements attacked. This type of resistance continued into the 1820s in south-eastern New South Wales. Pemulwuy, of the Bidjigal clan, led many attacks on European cattle stations, killing livestock and burning crops and buildings. He was shot and killed by a settler in 1802. The first conflict to be called a war began on the frontier west of Sydney in 1795 when settlers along the Hawkesbury and Nepean rivers fought a series of conflicts known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars with the local Darug people.
The British established a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern-day Tasmania) in 1803. Relations with the local Indigenous people were generally peaceful until the mid-1820s when pastoral expansion caused conflict over land, leading to sustained frontier warfare (the "Black War"). Over 50 British were killed between 1828 and 1830 in what was the "most successful Aboriginal resistance in Australia's history". The first British settlement in northern Australia was established in 1824 but was abandoned in 1829 due to attacks from the local Tiwi people. The growth of the Swan River Colony in the 1830s led to conflict with the Aboriginal people, culminating in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed.
In 1837, the British select committee found that the treatment of Australian Aboriginals was very poor, and a 'Protector of Aborigines' was recommended to be appointed. In 1848, NSW sent troopers to Queensland to 'open the land for settlement and kill natives'. In 1863, 150 Aboriginal people were killed in the Kimberly Region for resisting arrest. The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928, where at least 31 Aboriginal people were killed.
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The impact of disease on the Aboriginal population
The Aboriginal population of Australia has been present for at least 50,000 years, with some estimates placing this date closer to 60,000 or even 65,000 years ago. The arrival of the First Fleet in Sydney Cove in 1788 brought approximately 1,300 colonists to a region inhabited by around 3,000 Aboriginal people. This marked the beginning of a devastating period for the Aboriginal population, who suffered severe casualties due to introduced diseases, violent conflicts, and forced displacement from their traditional lands.
The relative isolation of the Aboriginal population for tens of thousands of years left them with little resistance to the diseases carried by the arriving colonists. In April 1789, an outbreak of smallpox killed about half of the Aboriginal population in the Sydney region. While the source of the outbreak is debated, it had a catastrophic impact, with similar outbreaks continuing to devastate Aboriginal communities.
Violent conflict with settlers also resulted in significant Aboriginal casualties. Between 1826 and 1852, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in Western Australia. The introduction of mounted police, Native Police units, and firearms further increased Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts. From 1860 to 1895, colonists killed an estimated 650 to 850 Aboriginal people in central Australia. The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their lands.
The health disparities between Aboriginal and non-Indigenous populations in Australia persist today. Aboriginal people continue to experience higher rates of chronic health conditions, including kidney disease, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. They also face barriers to accessing healthcare, resulting in higher rates of potentially avoidable deaths. The life expectancy of Aboriginal people remains lower than that of non-Indigenous Australians, particularly in remote areas.
To address these disparities, healthcare policies are increasingly adopting a ''strengths-based approach' that respects the culture and resilience of Aboriginal communities. This approach aims to develop solutions and policies that are culturally appropriate and informed by the knowledge and experience of Aboriginal people. While improvements have been made in some areas, such as birth and pregnancy outcomes, significant barriers to healthcare access and health disparities remain.
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Free settlers and convict settlers
Evidence suggests that the first settlement of Australia by modern humans occurred around 48,000–50,000 years ago. However, this answer focuses on the European settlement of Australia, specifically the convict and free settlers.
Convict Settlers
The British Government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 18th century. After the end of trans-Atlantic transportation due to the American Revolution, the British sought an alternative destination to relieve overcrowding in prisons. In 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. In 1787, the First Fleet of 11 convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 26 January 1788 to establish the first permanent European colony in Australia within New South Wales. Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia.
Convicts faced inhumane treatment and were assigned to create infrastructure for the convict system, including the construction of prisons. They were also put to work on farms, with the colony suffering from food shortages and a lack of skilled farmers. Convictism carried a social stigma, and being of convict descent was a source of shame for some later Australians. However, most ex-convicts remained in Australia, joining the free settlers, and attitudes became more accepting over time.
Free Settlers
The First Fleet in 1788 also brought hundreds of free people to the colony, mostly soldiers and their families. However, the first group of people considered free settlers, those who voluntarily migrated to the colony, arrived aboard the Bellona in early 1793. The Australian colonial governments encouraged skilled labourers and single women to migrate, offering them free land on the condition that it was used productively.
In the early 1800s, the British colonial government began assisting less wealthy migrants by paying their transportation costs, providing them with free agricultural tools, and granting them access to convict labour. This boosted the population of the Australian colonies and reduced the need for convict labour. The offer appealed to those suffering from unemployment and poverty in Britain due to the Industrial Revolution.
In the 1830s, the British and Australian colonial governments began paying for thousands of migrants to move to Australia, with around 357,000 assisted migrants arriving between 1832 and the 1850s. Wealthy free settlers were also attracted to Australia after Europeans crossed the Blue Mountains in 1813, hoping to take advantage of new land for grazing sheep and cattle.
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Frequently asked questions
Archaeological evidence shows that modern humans spread to Australia by at least 50,000 years ago.
The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.
The oldest human remains found are at Lake Mungo in New South Wales, dated to around 41,000 years ago.
The European invasion of Australia happened in 1788, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, whose mission was to establish a penal colony and take control of the land for settlement.
