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The unified Italian nation-state, as we know it today, did not exist until the 1860s. In 1848, the Italian Peninsula was not unified under one government, and for centuries, it had been divided into independent kingdoms and republics. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the major powers of Europe agreed that the south of the peninsula plus Sicily would be ruled by the 'Kingdom of the Two Sicilies', the middle by the Pope in Rome, and the northwest and Sardinia by the 'Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia'. However, the rest of northern Italy, including Milan and Venice, was given to Austria. In 1848, the people of the peninsula and neighbouring islands rose up against Austrian rule, and the Five Days of Milan revolt resulted in the Austrian troops pulling out of the city. This was followed by the Venetians declaring independence from Austria as the 'Republic of San Marco'. The Second War of Italian Unification, from 1859 to 1861, resulted in the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, with all but Venetia and the Papal State entering the new nation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Italian independence from Austria | 1859-1861 |
| Name of the war | Second War of Italian Unification |
| Result | Creation of the Kingdom of Italy |
| First Phase | Piedmont-Sardinia and France went to war against Austria |
| First Phase Result | Piedmont-Sardinia gained Lombardy from Austria |
| Second Phase | Piedmont-Sardinia co-opted Giuseppe Garibaldi's 1860 march through the southern half of the Italian peninsula |
| Fourth War | Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 |
| Result of the Fourth War | Kingdom of Italy captured Rome and the Papal State |
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What You'll Learn
Piedmont-Sardinia's struggle against Austria
The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia played a crucial role in the Italian unification and the struggle against Austria in the First Italian War of Independence (1848-1849). Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by the House of Savoy, was one of several independent kingdoms and republics that made up the Italian Peninsula at the time.
In 1848, revolutionary fervour spread across Europe, and the Italian Peninsula was no exception. The people of the peninsula and neighbouring islands rose up, forcing the monarchs in Naples, Rome, and Turin to agree to new constitutions that limited their power and gave more voice to the people. However, in the territories occupied by Austria, the desire for independence went even further. Inspired by the pan-European revolutionary spirit, the Milanese started the "Five Days of Milan," a successful revolt against the Austrian garrison. The Venetians followed suit, declaring independence from Austria as the "Republic of San Marco."
Charles Albert, the constitutional monarch of Piedmont-Sardinia, joined the cause and declared war on Austria, making it officially the Italian War of Independence. Italian armies and volunteers united in the struggle, and over the summer of 1848, they pushed the Austrians back. However, the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies withdrew from the war, and with reinforcements, the Austrians gradually retook the region.
In 1849, Piedmont-Sardinia suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the Austrians. 100,000 poorly trained Italian troops under Charles Albert were thoroughly defeated by 70,000 Austrian troops led by Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky at Novara. This defeat led to the Austrian occupation of Lomellina and Alessandria and significant terms imposed on Piedmont-Sardinia. Despite this setback, Piedmont-Sardinia remained committed to the nationalist cause, and its ambitions for a unified Italy persisted.
In the following years, Piedmont-Sardinia, now known simply as Sardinia after ceding Savoy and Nice to France, sought allies to strengthen its position against Austria. This effort culminated in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859), also known as the Sardinian War or the Austro-Sardinian War. With the support of Napoleon III and the French, Sardinia once again took up arms against Austria. The French army, under Marshal François Certain Canrobert, entered Piedmont, and the combined Franco-Sardinian forces successfully halted the Austrian advance.
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The First Italian War of Independence
The Italian Peninsula had not been unified under one government since the Roman Empire. For centuries, it was a patchwork of independent republics and kingdoms. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Great Powers of Europe ruled that the south of the Peninsula plus Sicily was to be governed by the 'Kingdom of the Two Sicilies', the middle was to be ruled by the Pope in Rome, and the northwest and Sardinia were to be ruled by the 'Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia'. The rest of northern Italy, including the major cities of Milan and Venice, was given to Austria.
In 1848, the revolutionary fervour that had started in France the previous year reached Italy. The people of the Peninsula and neighbouring islands rose up. The monarchs in Naples, Rome, and Turin were forced to agree to new constitutions, limiting their power and giving more voice to the people. However, in the territories occupied by Austria, a constitution wouldn't be enough—they wanted independence.
On 18 March 1848, the 'Five Days of Milan' began: a huge popular revolt against the Austrian garrison. The Austrian troops eventually pulled out of the city. Following this, the Venetians declared independence from Austria as the 'Republic of San Marco'.
On 23 March, the day after the end of the Five Days of Milan, King Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont, a constitutional monarch, declared war on Austria. This marked the beginning of the First Italian War of Independence. Italian troops and volunteers from various states gathered to fight against the Austrians.
The Battle of Novara in March 1849 was the last and bloodiest battle of the First Italian War of Independence. 70,000 Austrian troops under Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky defeated 100,000 poorly trained Italian troops under Charles Albert, who asked the Austrians on what terms he could seek an armistice. That evening, Charles Albert declared that he intended to abdicate.
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The Second War of Italian Unification
In the mid-19th century, a series of events known as the Italian Wars of Independence took place, ultimately leading to the unification of Italy and its independence from foreign powers, including Austria. The Second Italian War of Independence, also known as the Franco-Austrian War, was a pivotal conflict in this process and occurred between April and July 1859. This war was the second crucial step towards the unification of Italy and the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, with the first being the First Italian War of Independence in 1848, which ended in an Austrian victory.
The Second War began when the Kingdom of Sardinia, led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, and allied with France under Napoleon III, provoked Austria into a war. The Sardinians sought to expel the Austrians from the Italian Peninsula and unify the numerous independent states under a single, independent Italian kingdom. The conflict started with a Sardinian-French victory at the Battle of Montebello on May 20, 1859, followed by a crucial victory at the Battle of Magenta on June 4, which allowed the Franco-Sardinian army to advance towards the key Austrian stronghold of Milan.
The Austrian army then attempted to break the siege of Milan and counter-attacked at the Battle of Solferino on June 24, 1859. This battle proved to be the war's turning point, as the Austrians were decisively defeated, forcing them to abandon Milan and retreat to the Quadrilateral fortresses in the northeast. The war concluded with the Armistice of Villafranca on July 12, negotiated by Napoleon III without the consent of his Sardinian allies, which brought an end to the active conflict.
As a result of the war, the Austrians ceded most of Lombardy and the city of Milan to France, who immediately transferred it to Sardinia. This significantly expanded the territory under Sardinian control and brought it a step closer to unification. Additionally, the war had important international repercussions, leading to the unification of Germany as Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck saw the potential for a strong Italy as a useful counterweight to France. Overall, the Second Italian War of Independence was a critical step in the creation of an independent and unified Italy, setting the stage for the eventual establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
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The Austrian Empire's fall
The Austrian Empire, officially known as the Empire of Austria, was a powerful multinational European monarchy from 1804 to 1867. It was created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. The Empire was the third most populous monarchy in Europe, and the third-largest geographically.
The fall of the Austrian Empire was gradual and came about due to a combination of internal and external factors. Internally, the Empire was weakened by the widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests. The duality of the Habsburg monarchy was highlighted during World War I, as the Austrian parliament was suspended, while the Hungarian parliament continued its sessions, demonstrating its reduced amenability to military dictation. The Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy also routinely suspended civil rights and treated different national groups with varying degrees of contempt, causing nationalists within the empire to become embittered.
Externally, the Austrian Empire faced challenges from the pan-European revolutionary fervour of 1848, which inspired Italians to rise up against Austrian rule. In March 1848, the "Five Days of Milan" saw a popular revolt against the Austrian garrison, resulting in their withdrawal from the city. This inspired the Venetians to declare independence from Austria as the "Republic of San Marco". The Austrian Emperor was already struggling to contain revolutions in Hungary and Vienna, and the loss of Milan further contributed to the tumbling of the Austrian Empire.
The final blow to the Austrian Empire came with its defeat in World War I. The Austro-Hungarian Army suffered from low morale due to economic collapse and starvation, and it eventually collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist movements organized strikes and uprisings, and the multi-ethnic army was unable to hold its line. The last Habsburg Emperor, Charles I, renounced his right to participate in Austrian affairs of state, and Austria became a republic, bringing an end to Habsburg rule.
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The Kingdom of Italy's completion
The Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, following the Second War of Italian Unification, which lasted from 1859 to 1861. However, the completion of Italian unification, which included the annexation of the Papal State, did not occur until the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.
The Italian Peninsula had not been unified under one government since the Roman Empire, and for centuries, it was a patchwork of independent republics and kingdoms. In 1815, after Napoleon's defeat, the Great Powers of Europe divided the Italian Peninsula, giving the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia control of the northwest and Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies control of the south, and the Pope control of the middle. Northern Italian cities like Milan and Venice were given to Austria.
The revolutionary fervour of 1848 spread across Europe, igniting the Italian War of Independence. The people of the Italian Peninsula and neighbouring islands rose up, forcing monarchs in Naples, Rome, and Turin to agree to new constitutions that limited their power and gave more voice to the people. However, in the territories occupied by Austria, a constitution was not enough, and they sought independence. On March 18, 1848, the "Five Days of Milan" began, with a popular revolt against the Austrian garrison. The Austrian troops eventually withdrew from the city, and the Milanese victory inspired the Venetians to declare independence from Austria as the "Republic of San Marco".
The Second War of Italian Unification, from 1859 to 1861, was a pivotal phase in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy. It progressed in two stages. In the first phase, Piedmont-Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel I, and France went to war against Austria. Piedmont-Sardinia gained Lombardy, a north Italian state, from Austria through a transfer by France. This acquisition inspired nationalists in other states under Austrian control to support annexation by Piedmont-Sardinia's newly emerging Kingdom of Italy. In the second phase, Piedmont-Sardinia co-opted the 1860 march through the southern half of the Italian peninsula by nationalists under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
The completion of Italian unification occurred during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. With the withdrawal of French troops from the Papal State, troops from the Kingdom of Italy captured Rome and the Papal State, annexing it into the Kingdom of Italy. However, it was only in 1929, with the Lateran Pact between the Papacy and Italy, that the Papacy recognised Rome as part of Italy and as its legitimate capital. In return, the Italian government recognised the sovereignty of Vatican City as an independent state.
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Frequently asked questions
Italy gained independence from Austria in 1861.
The first phase of Italy's independence from Austria was the Piedmont-Sardinia and France war against Austria in 1859.
The second phase was the 1860 march through the southern half of the Italian peninsula by nationalists under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was the base for Italian unification.
King Victor Emmanuel I was the first king of the Kingdom of Italy.
