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The French Revolutionary Wars, which began in 1792, were a series of military conflicts that resulted from the French Revolution and pitted France against several European powers, including Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. The war against Austria specifically was sparked by the Declaration of Pillnitz, issued by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia in August 1791, which called on the powers of Europe to unite against Revolutionary France. In response, the French Legislative Assembly voted for war against Austria on April 20, 1792, marking the start of the War of the First Coalition. This period of conflict lasted until 1797 and involved French invasions of the Austrian Netherlands and Belgium, as well as battles in Italy and along the Rhine. The War of the First Coalition ended with the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797, which ceded Belgium to France and recognized French control of the Rhineland and parts of Italy. However, the French Revolutionary Wars continued until 1802, with the War of the Second Coalition, and were followed by the Napoleonic Wars, which lasted until the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolutionary Wars
The French Revolution began at the end of the 18th century, when the European continent had five great powers: Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The key figure in the initial foreign reaction to the French Revolution was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of Queen Marie Antoinette of France. Leopold had initially looked on the revolution with equanimity but became more disturbed as the revolution became more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with émigré French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of King Louis XVI of France and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them.
Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a non-committal gesture to placate the sentiments of French monarchists and nobles, it was seen in France as a serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders. France issued an ultimatum demanding that Leopold renounce any hostile alliances and withdraw his troops from the French border. The reply was evasive, and the French Legislative Assembly voted for war on 20 April 1792 against Francis II, the successor of Leopold II, after a long list of grievances presented by foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule as they had in 1790. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. Following the declaration of war, French soldiers deserted en masse and in one case murdered their general, Théobald Dillon.
The War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, initially against the constitutional Kingdom of France and then the French Republic that succeeded it. They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred. Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791. Eight months later, following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly, France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792; Prussia, having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under the Duke of Brunswick and composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France.
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War of the First Coalition
The War of the First Coalition was a series of wars fought between several European powers between 1792 and 1797. The war was initially against the constitutional Kingdom of France and then the French Republic that succeeded it. The First Coalition consisted of Britain, Russia, Prussia, Spain, Holland, and Austria.
The war was sparked by the ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799), which threatened the established monarchies of Europe. The French revolutionaries, who had long feared military intervention by neighbouring monarchies, declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792 to preserve and expand the Revolution. After winning the Battle of Valmy, the French declared themselves a republic, executed their king, and pursued expansionist war goals such as the conquest of Belgium and the Rhineland. These factors drew more nations into the anti-French coalition.
In 1793, the Republic was in dire straits, having to fend off enemy armies on all fronts. However, the French counterattacks, utilizing overwhelming numerical superiority and revolutionary zeal, succeeded in pushing the Allied armies back. The European powers gradually lost heart and began dropping out of the Coalition. By 1796, the first coalition of anti-French states had disintegrated.
In 1795, Prussia withdrew from the coalition by concluding the separate Treaty of Basel, recognizing French claims to the left bank of the Rhine. The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The coalition thus fell into ruin and France proper would be free from invasion for many years.
The War of the First Coalition ended with the Treaty of Campo Formio, signed in October 1797, which left Great Britain as the only nation to remain at war with France. However, the end of the war solved none of the underlying issues, and hostilities resumed a year later in the War of the Second Coalition.
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War of the Second Coalition
The War of the Second Coalition (1798/9–1801/2) was the second attempt by an alliance of major European powers to defeat Revolutionary France. Led by Britain, Austria, and Russia, the coalition included the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and various German monarchies. Prussia did not join, and Spain supported France. The goal of Britain and Russia was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and restore the monarchy, while Austria sought to recover its position and emerge from the war stronger.
The first half of the war saw the Coalition drive the French back in Italy, Germany, and Holland, but they couldn't seriously threaten an invasion of France or decisively defeat the French in battle. The French army became more successful as its officers and soldiers gained experience, and the elimination of conservative leadership after 1789 enabled reforms without resistance.
The second half of the war saw Napoleon Bonaparte and General Moreau inflict major defeats, forcing the Coalition to surrender. The Second Coalition failed to overthrow the revolutionary government, and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. The Franco-Austrian Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801 resulted in France holding all previous gains and obtaining new lands in Tuscany, while Austria received Venetia and the former Venetian Dalmatia. Most allies signed separate peace treaties with the French Republic in 1801.
Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, followed by the Ottomans in June, ending the war and beginning the longest period of peace between 1792 and 1815. This interval lasted several months until Britain declared war on France again in May 1803, marking the start of the Napoleonic Wars.
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France's declaration of war on Austria
The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts resulting from the French Revolution that lasted from 1792 until 1802. Pitting France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and several other countries, the wars are divided into two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802).
In the lead-up to the French declaration of war on Austria in April 1792, several factors escalated tensions between the two countries. Firstly, there were ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, including Austria. Disputes also arose over the status of Imperial estates in Alsace, and the agitation of émigré nobles in the Austrian Netherlands and minor German states caused concern for the French authorities. Additionally, Austria stationed a significant number of troops on its border with France and, together with Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which threatened severe consequences if anything happened to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.
On April 20, 1792, the French Legislative Assembly voted for war against Francis II, the successor of Leopold II, after a presentation of grievances by the newly appointed foreign minister, Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez sought a war that might restore popularity and authority to the King. Following the declaration of war, Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, anticipating a revolt against Austrian rule by the local population. However, the revolution had disorganized the French army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. This led to mass desertions, with French soldiers even murdering their general, Théobald Dillon, in one instance.
In June 1792, Prussia, which had allied with Austria in February, declared war on France. The following month, an army composed mostly of Prussians, under the Duke of Brunswick, joined the Austrian side and invaded France. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands, winning a significant victory at the Battle of Jemappes on November 6, 1792, and occupying the entire country by winter. The execution of Louis XVI on January 21, 1793, united all European governments, including Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the Netherlands, against the Revolution. France responded by declaring war against Britain and the Netherlands in February 1793, soon extending this to Spain.
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Napoleon's assault on Austria in Italy
The French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted from 1792 to 1802, saw France pitted against several European powers, including Austria. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had gained popularity from his victories in Egypt, reorganized the French army and launched an assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This was Napoleon's second Italian campaign, the first of which took place in 1796–97.
During his first Italian campaign, Napoleon's army besieged Mantua, the centre of Austrian power in Italy. In response, the Austrians sent a large army to break the siege. Napoleon's strategy was to cut their supply line by taking the Austrian-held town of Arcole, which controlled the narrow road used to supply the enemy. After three days of fighting, the French captured Arcole, and Napoleon eventually drove the Austrians out of Mantua and Italy. This campaign culminated in the Peace of Leoben and the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797, which ended the War of the First Coalition.
Napoleon's second Italian campaign in 1800 aimed to reconquer northern Italy, which had fallen back under Austrian control after military defeats inflicted by Austrian and Russian forces in 1799, and the Austrian invasion of Lombardy and Liguria in April 1800. In a brilliant strategic move, Napoleon led a reserve army of around 50,000 men over the Swiss Alps into northern Italy, emerging behind Austrian lines. By personally leading his troops through the Alps, Napoleon echoed the legendary exploits of Charlemagne and Hannibal, boosting morale. Napoleon and his army completed the crossing in fifteen days, despite the challenging terrain, and arrived on the plains of Lombardy on May 30, 1800, ready to face the Austrian army.
The Austrian army initially appeared to have the upper hand in the Battle of Marengo on June 14, 1800. However, General Desaix, one of Napoleon's best officers, arrived with reinforcements and turned the tide of the battle, although he was killed in action. This victory allowed Napoleon to negotiate peace on his terms, and the Austrians were forced to cede land to his German allies and pay war indemnities.
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Frequently asked questions
France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792.
The French Revolutionary Wars had a profound impact on the new French society and shaped the course of European history. They led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized control of France in 1799. The wars also resulted in French victories and the conquest of territories in the Italian peninsula, the Low Countries, and the Rhineland.
The French Revolutionary Wars ended with the Treaty of Amiens, signed on 25 March 1802, marking the conclusion of the conflict between France and the Second Coalition. However, it is important to note that France remained at war with Great Britain.
The Austrian government focused on internal reforms, especially in finances, as the wars had incurred significant expenses. They also experienced military reforms, aiming to improve their defence capabilities.
