Lyla Lindsey
Austria-Hungary, or the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867. The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in response to Napoleon's declaration of the First French Empire. After the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Francis Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in 1914, the empire entered World War I, which, along with the 1918 crop failure, general starvation, and the economic crisis, led to its collapse in 1918. The collapse of the empire was formalized in the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria and the 1920 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary. In 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, becoming the first free country to fall victim to Hitlerite aggression.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name | Austria-Hungary |
| Type of State | Monarchy |
| Date of Dissolution | Autumn 1918 |
| Reason for Dissolution | WWI, crop failure, starvation, economic crisis, chronic overcommitment, flu pandemic |
| Legal Recognition of Dissolution | Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), Treaty of Trianon (1920) |
| Replacement States | Republic of German Austria, Hungarian Democratic Republic |
| Annexation by Germany | 15 March 1938 |
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What You'll Learn
The end of Habsburg rule
The Habsburg Monarchy, also known as the Habsburg Empire or Habsburg Realm, was a collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties, and other polities (composite monarchy) ruled by the House of Habsburg. The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282.
In 1919, the new republican Austrian government passed a law banishing the Habsburgs from Austrian territory until they renounced all intentions of regaining the throne and accepted the status of private citizens. Charles made several attempts to regain the throne of Hungary, but in 1921, the Hungarian government passed a law that revoked Charles' rights and dethroned the Habsburgs, marking the definitive end of Habsburg rule.
The fall of the Habsburg Monarchy was preceded by a period of decline and fracture, with territories gradually being lost or ceded to other powers. For example, Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740-1742, Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635, and the Kingdom of Hungary was largely conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The monarchy was also facing internal challenges, such as the Hungarian Revolution of 1849, which was crushed by Russian and Austrian armies, and the rise of populist and antisemitic politics. By the time of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was heavily rural and dominated by Germany, playing a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war.
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The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The compromise transformed the structure of the Habsburg Monarchy, resulting in two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, and two distinct halves of the empire with their own constitutions, governments, and parliaments. The Austrian half, often referred to as 'Cisleithania', was a multinational state that consisted of seventeen historical crown lands. On the other hand, the Kingdom of Hungary, dominated by the Magyars, had its territorial integrity and old historic constitution restored.
The compromise granted full internal autonomy to Hungary, with Emperor Franz Joseph recognising the Hungarian Parliament's authority and ending the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary. In return, Hungary agreed that for purposes of war and foreign affairs, the empire would remain a single great state, maintaining its prestige abroad. This agreement was facilitated by Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák, who initially supported Hungarian independence but later advocated for a modified union under the Habsburgs, acknowledging the Pragmatic Sanction of 1723, which stated that defence and foreign affairs were "common" to both Austria and Hungary.
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was met with mixed reactions in Hungary. While it restored some of the sovereignty lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, many Hungarians considered it a betrayal of their interests and the achievements of the 1848 reforms. The compromise's unpopularity among ethnic Hungarian voters created deep divisions in Hungarian society, and its maintenance was largely due to the support of ethnic minority voters for the pro-compromise ruling Liberal Party.
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Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was a conflict between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with both sides aided by various allies within the German Confederation. Prussia also had Italy as an ally, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The war was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.
The Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly due to the German customs union, the Zollverein, which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia was able to equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and later with Krupp breech-loading artillery. On the other hand, the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of Independence, leaving the state heavily in debt. Despite this, historian Christopher Clark suggests that Prussia did not have an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria. He argues that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery) and that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population.
The war ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, reducing the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture. On July 3, 1866, three Prussian armies converged to defeat Austria's Northern army and that of her Saxon ally at Konig-gratz or Sadowa in Bohemia. It was one of the biggest and most decisive battles in modern history. The Prussian victory at Konig-gratz, along with the diversion of some Austrian forces to the south due to the alliance with Italy, resulted in Prussia's overall victory in the war.
The Peace of Prague on August 23, 1866, resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, the Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This allowed Prussia to form the North German Confederation, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. Austria was also forced to cede Venetia to Italy by the Treaty of Vienna on October 3, 1866. As a result of its defeat, Austria adopted the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary.
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The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Habsburg Empire, collapsed in 1918 due to a multitude of factors, including World War I, crop failure, starvation, economic crisis, and the flu pandemic. The Empire, which consisted of diverse dynastic possessions and an internally autonomous kingdom of Hungary, was already weakened by a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests. The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a passive diplomatic role in World War I, dominated and controlled by Germany, with the sole goal of punishing Serbia and preventing the ethnic breakup of the Empire. However, this attempt failed, and the Empire faced disintegration as nationalist movements within it gained momentum.
The Empire's multi-ethnic army suffered from low morale due to the suspension of civil rights and contemptuous treatment by the military. Additionally, the 1917 October Revolution and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements encouraged socialism and nationalism, further contributing to the Empire's decline. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes and uprisings, and the German defeat, along with minor revolutions in Vienna and Budapest, led to the rise of left/liberal political parties.
On October 17, 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted to end the union with Austria, marking a significant step towards the collapse of the dual monarchy. Count Mihály Károlyi, a prominent opponent of the union with Austria, seized power in the Aster Revolution on October 31 and became the Hungarian prime minister. He immediately repudiated the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The Hungarian government's decision to recall troops conscripted from the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary dealt a significant blow to the Habsburg armies.
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire had significant consequences, including currency reforms due to the lack of coordination in monetary policy. The Treaties of St. Germain and Trianon, signed in 1919 and 1920, respectively, addressed the stamping of Austro-Hungarian banknotes and the introduction of new national currencies. The dissolution also led to the formation of new states, such as German Austria, which became the First Austrian Republic, and the First Hungarian Republic, which later transformed into the Kingdom of Hungary.
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The annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938
In the lead-up to the annexation, Austrian Nazis had been conspiring to seize control of the Austrian government and unite with Germany. In early 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg learned of the plot and met with Adolf Hitler in an attempt to maintain Austria's independence. However, he was coerced into appointing Nazis to his cabinet and, on March 9, called for a national vote on the question of Anschluss. Before the vote could take place, Schuschnigg was pressured by Hitler to resign on March 11, and he pleaded with Austrian forces not to resist the German advance.
On March 12, German troops marched into Austria, where they were enthusiastically welcomed by the crowds. Hitler travelled through Austria, culminating in a triumphal tour of Vienna on March 15, where he addressed a crowd of 200,000 cheering supporters in Heldenplatz (Square of Heroes). He proclaimed the completion of the annexation, stating that Austria was now a part of the German Reich. The next day, on March 13, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany.
The annexation of Austria was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, but it resulted in a surge of public violence against Austrian Jews. Many Jews, leftists, and Schuschnigg supporters attempted to flee the country, fearing persecution. The Allied powers declared the Anschluss void at the end of World War II and re-established an independent Austria.
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Frequently asked questions
The Austrian Empire fell in 1867 when the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria joined to form Austria-Hungary.
Austria-Hungary collapsed in the autumn of 1918 due to World War I, crop failure, starvation, economic crisis, and a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests.
Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany on 15 March 1938.
No, Austria did not fall to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans moved against Austria in 1682 in retaliation against Habsburg raids but were defeated by allied forces in 1683.
Austria did not fall to Serbia, but the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Francis Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 precipitated World War I and contributed to the collapse of Austria-Hungary.
