The Downfall Of Germany And Austria-Hungary: Final Problems

The final problems that Germany and Austria-Hungary faced were largely due to the onset of World War I. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914, sparked a series of diplomatic and military escalations among the major powers of Europe, leading to the outbreak of the war. This event caused Austria-Hungary to seek military action against Serbia, which was supported by Germany. However, the complex web of alliances and miscalculations of political and military leaders resulted in hostilities among most European states by early August 1914.

Austria-Hungary faced internal challenges, with the duality of the Habsburg monarchy underlined from the war's beginning. The Hungarian parliament continued its sessions, while the Austrian parliament was suspended. The Slav minorities showed little sign of anti-Habsburg sentiment until Russia's March Revolution in 1917. Additionally, the economic situation deteriorated, with food shortages and the 1918 flu pandemic affecting the empire.

The war efforts also took a toll, with the multi-ethnic army losing morale and finding it challenging to hold its line. Nationalists within the empire became embittered as civil rights were suspended, and different national groups were treated with contempt. The Italian offensive in October 1918 marked the start of rebellion for the various ethnicities within the empire, as they refused to continue fighting for a lost cause.

The final scenes of Austria-Hungary's dissolution were rapid. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes and uprisings, and the German defeat gave political power to the left/liberal parties. Emperor Charles' attempts to save the empire, such as granting autonomy to the peoples of the Austrian Empire, were too little, too late. The national councils of various ethnicities acted as provisional governments, and by the end of October, there was little left of the Habsburg realm.

On November 3, 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy signed an armistice with the Allies, effectively ending their involvement in World War I. Emperor Charles issued a proclamation recognizing the Austrian people's right to self-determination and renouncing his authority, marking the end of Habsburg rule.

The Austro-Hungarian army's lack of preparation for war

The Austro-Hungarian army was ill-prepared for war on multiple fronts. The army was plagued by poor planning, inadequate resources, and a lack of coordination between its various branches.

The army's planning was largely the responsibility of the General Staff, led by Chief Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Von Hötzendorf was a strong advocate for an aggressive foreign policy and believed in the supremacy of the offensive. However, his plans failed to account for the consequences of modern firepower and the importance of logistics. The army was also hampered by the complexities of the Dual Monarchy's political system, which impeded a military build-up until the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913.

The Austro-Hungarian army faced significant challenges in terms of resources. Field artillery was a notable problem, and there was a lack of reserve formations. The empire's unfavourable strategic situation, surrounded by potential adversaries, made attacks with high casualty rates and extended lines of communication particularly dangerous. The army also struggled with a lack of coordination between its various branches, including the Common Army, the Imperial-Royal Landwehr, and the Royal Hungarian Honvéd.

The army's problems were further exacerbated by ethnic and linguistic divisions within its ranks. While regiments were organised along linguistic lines, with German as the language of command, this often led to logistical challenges and tensions between different ethnic groups.

Overall, the Austro-Hungarian army's lack of preparation for war was characterised by poor planning, inadequate resources, and a lack of coordination between its various branches, which ultimately contributed to its struggles during World War I.

The German Empire's influence over Austria-Hungary

The German Empire had a significant influence over Austria-Hungary, which was also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy, or the Habsburg Monarchy. The two empires shared a military and diplomatic alliance and were bound by a dual monarchy, with a single monarch titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.

• Military Alliance: Austria-Hungary and the German Empire formed a dual alliance in 1879, which strengthened their military and diplomatic ties. This alliance became known as the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. The alliance provided a united front against potential threats, particularly from Russia and Serbia.
• Foreign Policy Dependence: The unification of Germany in 1871 made it the dominant power in Central Europe, leading to Austria-Hungary's increased dependence on German foreign policy. This dependence was further exacerbated by the German Empire's influence over the multi-ethnic state, with the German-speaking populations split between identifying with Austria and Germany.
• Economic Dependence: During World War I, the exhausted Habsburg Monarchy became heavily dependent on the German Empire, both militarily and economically. This dependence ultimately led to a loss of independence in military and foreign policy decision-making.
• Political Influence: The German Emperor, Wilhelm II, played a significant role in influencing Austria-Hungary's foreign policy, particularly regarding its relations with Serbia. Wilhelm II strongly supported Austria-Hungary's aggressive stance towards Serbia and encouraged military action, even providing a "blank cheque" of support.
• Social and Cultural Influence: The German-speaking populations within Austria-Hungary were influenced by German culture and language. However, there were also tensions and divisions between those identifying with Austria and those identifying with Germany, which created complexities within the empire.
• Treaties and Agreements: The two empires collaborated on various treaties and agreements, such as the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, which gave Austria-Hungary the right to occupy Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina. Additionally, they formed the Mediterranean Entente in 1887 with Britain and Italy, further solidifying their alliance.

Austria-Hungary's failure to defeat Serbia

Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Bosnian Serb nationalist, Austria-Hungary sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia, viewing Serbian support for Yugoslav nationalism as a threat to the unity of its multi-national empire. However, they were wary of the reaction of Russia, a major supporter of Serbia, and sought assurances from their ally, Germany, that they would be supported in any conflict. Germany gave their backing, urging Austria-Hungary to attack quickly to localise the war and avoid drawing in Russia. However, Austro-Hungarian leaders deliberated for several weeks before deciding to give Serbia a harsh ultimatum, and refused to attack without a full mobilisation of their army. During this time, France met with Russia and reaffirmed their alliance, agreeing to support Serbia against Austria-Hungary in the event of a war.

Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914 demanded that Serbia formally condemn anti-Austro-Hungarian propaganda, suppress all publications that incited hatred, dissolve Serbian nationalist organisations, eliminate propaganda from schoolbooks and public documents, remove certain officers from the Serbian military and civil administration, and accept "Austro-Hungarian delegates" to take part in investigations and trials related to the assassination. The demands were intentionally harsh, and Serbia was given only 48 hours to comply.

Before Serbia could reply, Russia ordered a partial mobilisation of its armed forces, increasing Serbia's willingness to defy the Austro-Hungarian threat and alarming the German leadership, who had not anticipated the possibility of having to fight Russia before France. The partial mobilisation was the first major military action not undertaken by a direct participant in the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and it altered the political chemistry in Vienna, making it more difficult for Austria-Hungary to back down without losing face.

On 28 July 1914, exactly one month after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The same evening, Austro-Hungarian artillery shelled the Serbian capital of Belgrade, effectively starting World War I. The first invasion of Serbia, which the Austro-Hungarian leadership dubbed a "punitive expedition", lasted thirteen days and resulted in the occupation of parts of northern Serbia. During this time, Austro-Hungarian forces committed numerous war crimes against civilians, including massacres, executions, hostage-taking, and the burning of villages. However, they were unable to defeat Serbia and were forced to retreat after suffering a major defeat at the hands of the Royal Serbian Army.

Two more invasions of Serbia were launched in September and November 1914, but both were repulsed, with the Royal Serbian Army liberating previously occupied territories and forcing the Austro-Hungarians to retreat. By the end of 1914, Austria-Hungary had failed to defeat Serbia and had suffered significant casualties, while the Royal Serbian Army was exhausted and facing a typhoid epidemic.

In 1915, Germany and Bulgaria entered into a secret military alliance, and together with Austria-Hungary, launched a joint invasion of Serbia in October 1915. This fourth invasion was more successful, and by January 1916, all of Serbia had been occupied by the Central Powers. Serbia was divided into occupation zones, with the northern three-quarters governed by the Austro-Hungarians and the remaining southern quarter governed by the Bulgarians. The occupational authorities implemented a system of totalised, repressive occupation rule, with the goal of denationalising and depoliticising the Serb population.

However, resistance continued in the form of guerrilla warfare, and in September 1918, Allied forces broke through the Salonica front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the liberation of Serbia by the end of October. By 1 November 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, bringing the Austro-Hungarian occupation to an end.

The collapse of the Italian front

The Italian front was characterised by trench warfare, similar to that on the Western Front, but at high altitudes and with extremely cold winters. The front stretched from the Stelvio Pass along the Tyrolean, Carinthian, and Littoral borders to the Isonzo. Its total length was around 600 kilometres, of which 450 kilometres ran in high alpine terrain.

The first major battle of the Italian front was the First Battle of the Isonzo, which began on 23 June 1915. Italian forces outnumbered the Austrians three-to-one but failed to penetrate the strong Austro-Hungarian defensive lines in the highlands of northwestern Gorizia and Gradisca. The Italians launched a series of frontal assaults against the numerous hills and mountains along the front, but these proved to be ineffectual bloodbaths.

The Italians launched a series of further offensives in 1915 and 1916, including the Second Battle of the Isonzo, the Third Battle of the Isonzo, the Fourth Battle of the Isonzo, the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo, the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo, the Seventh Battle of the Isonzo, the Eighth Battle of the Isonzo, and the Ninth Battle of the Isonzo. Despite making some gains, the Italians suffered heavy casualties and failed to break through the Austro-Hungarian lines.

In May 1916, the Austro-Hungarians launched a counteroffensive known as the Battle of Asiago. They achieved initial success but were unable to capitalise on it due to insufficient troops and a shortage of artillery. The Italians counterattacked and pushed the Austro-Hungarians back to the Tyrol.

In August 1917, the Italians launched the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo, also known as the Battle of the Bainsizza. This was a surprising success for the Italians, who captured the entire plateau. However, Italian casualties were almost twice those of the Austro-Hungarians.

On 24 October 1917, the Austro-Hungarians and Germans launched a joint offensive at Caporetto, inflicting a massive defeat on the Italians. The Italians were forced to retreat over 150 kilometres, abandoning 20,000 square kilometres of territory. Over 670,000 Italian soldiers were either killed, wounded, or taken prisoner.

The final battle of the Italian front was the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which began on 24 October 1918. The Italians, supported by French and British troops, broke through the Austro-Hungarian lines and advanced rapidly. On 3 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarian military leaders sent a flag of truce to the Italians to ask for an armistice. The armistice was signed on 3 November and came into effect on 4 November, bringing an end to the Italian front.

The failure of the Romanian offensive

The Romanian offensive during the Hungarian-Romanian War was a failure. The Romanian offensive was intended to occupy the territory in accordance with the 1916 Bucharest Treaty, which proposed that Hungary cede Transylvania, Partium, and parts of Banat to Romania. However, the Romanian offensive failed due to several factors, including the unilateral self-disarmament of the Hungarian army by the pacifist Hungarian Prime Minister, Count Mihály Károlyi, and the strained relationship between the Romanian delegation and the Allied Powers at the Paris Peace Conference.

The Romanian offensive began on November 11, 1918, when Romania re-entered the war on the side of the Allied forces. King Ferdinand called for the mobilisation of the Romanian Army, and Romanian forces crossed the Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania. The Romanian Army took control of Brașov and advanced to the line of the Mureș River, a demarcation line agreed upon by the Allies and Hungary.

However, the Romanian offensive faced several challenges. The Hungarian Army mounted a strong defence, and Romanian forces faced heavy fighting as they attempted to break through the Hungarian lines. The Hungarian Army was well-equipped, with 137 cannons and five armoured trains, and was motivated by sentiments of Hungarian nationalism. In addition, the Romanian Army faced logistical challenges, as they were required to extend their supply lines across difficult terrain.

Despite these challenges, the Romanian Army made some initial gains. They took control of several towns, including Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, and Salonta. However, the Romanian offensive ultimately failed to achieve its objectives. The Romanian forces were unable to break through the Hungarian defences and suffered heavy casualties. The Romanian Army lost 6,434 soldiers, with 3,125 wounded and 1,579 missing in action.

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