Leslie Massey
The history of Austria is a complex and dynamic narrative, with the nation undergoing numerous transformations over the centuries. In 1690, the territory encompassed by the term Austria was quite different from its modern borders. At that time, Austria was a part of the vast Habsburg Empire, which stretched across Central Europe and included lands that are now part of several countries, such as Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, and the Czech Republic. The late 17th century was a period of conflict for the region, with the Habsburgs engaged in battles against the Turks and vying for control of territories in Hungary, Belgrade, and Transylvania.
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What You'll Learn
Austria's involvement in the Franco-Dutch War
In 1690, the territory that is now known as Austria was part of the vast Habsburg Empire. The area was a prefecture of Bavaria, called 'Ostarrîchi' in Old High German, which translates to 'eastern realm'. The name 'Austria' is a Latinisation of the German name, which was first recorded in the 12th century.
Austria was involved in the Franco-Dutch War, which lasted from 1672 to 1678. The war was a European conflict primarily between France and the Dutch Republic. France was backed by Münster, Cologne, England, and the Swedish Empire, while the Dutch Republic was allied with the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Denmark-Norway. The war began in May 1672 when France nearly overran the Netherlands, but by late July, the Dutch position had stabilised. In 1673, concern over French gains brought support from Emperor Leopold I, Spain, and Brandenburg-Prussia.
England exited the war and made peace with the Dutch in February 1674, leaving Louis XIV of France facing war on multiple fronts. The Dutch also overestimated their power, and their navy and forts were lacking. However, the Dutch States Army was reborn during the war and became one of the most disciplined and well-trained armed forces in Europe.
The war concluded with the 1678 Peace of Nijmegen, which gave France considerable opportunities and is often seen as the high point of French power in this period. The Dutch recovered all the territory they had lost at the beginning of the war, making William of Orange dominant in domestic politics. This position helped him create the anti-French Grand Alliance that fought in subsequent wars.
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Ottoman-Habsburg conflict
In 1690, the territory that is now considered Austria was a part of the Habsburg Empire, which was involved in a near-constant conflict with the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century through to the 18th century. This conflict, known as the Ottoman-Habsburg wars, was dominated by land campaigns in Hungary, including Transylvania (now in Romania), Vojvodina (now in Serbia), Croatia, and central Serbia. The conflict also extended to sea, with Ottoman Barbary ships sweeping away Venetian possessions in the Aegean and Ionian seas.
The Ottoman-Habsburg conflict began when Sultan Suleiman the Lawgiver invaded Hungary in 1526, defeating King Louis II, who died trying to escape. Following this victory, Hungary was claimed by Suleiman, by Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and by the vojvod of Transylvania, Janós Szapolyai. This sparked nearly constant fighting on the long frontier in Hungary and Croatia that divided the Ottoman Empire from the Habsburg monarchy. The conflict was characterised as a clash of civilisations and religions, with the powerful Islamic state of the Ottoman Empire seen as a threat to Christendom in Europe.
The Habsburgs resisted internal separatist movements and fought Prussia and France for control of central Europe. They built up military communities that protected their borders and produced a steady flow of well-trained, motivated soldiers. The key advance made by the Europeans was an effective combined arms doctrine involving the cooperation of infantry, artillery, and cavalry. Despite this, the Ottomans were able to maintain military parity with the Habsburgs until the middle of the 18th century.
The Ottoman-Habsburg conflict included several prolonged periods of peace, during which small-scale warfare, known as the "Little War", continued. Treaties of peace were agreed upon in 1547, 1568, 1576, 1584, and 1591. War broke out again in 1593, in the Long Turkish War, which lasted until 1606. The Ottoman-Habsburg conflict ended when the Austrian and Ottoman Empires signed an alliance with the German Empire prior to World War I.
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Austria's history of migration
In the Middle Paleolithic era, the Alps were inaccessible during the Ice Age, so human habitation in the area now known as Austria dates no earlier than this period. From around 8000 BC, the fertile Danube Valley and the Alpine valleys of today's Austria were settled. In the second century BC, a Celtic state called Noricum developed in the region around the ironworks, and from the 7th century BC, one of the main regions of Celtic occupation was in modern-day Austria, centred around Hallstatt, a large prehistoric salt-mining area.
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Germanic tribe of the Bavarii (Frankish vassals) developed in the west of the country and in later-known Bavaria, while Alemans settled in later-known Vorarlberg. In the northern Alps, the Bavarians were established as a stem dukedom by around 550, under Agilolfing rule until 788 as an eastern Frankish Empire outpost. In the 7th century, the Carantanians migrated westward along the Drava into the Eastern Alps, mixing with the Celto-Romanic population and establishing the realm of Carantania (later Carinthia), which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory.
In the 12th century, Henry II moved his residence to Vienna, which has remained the capital of the country ever since. In the same century, St. Stephen's cathedral was completed, and Henry II founded the Schottenstift monastery in Vienna. In 1156, Austria became a duchy, and in 1273 it was elevated to an archduchy. In 1278, the Battle of Marchfeld was fought between the kings of Germany and Hungary, with the Germans emerging victorious.
In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire posed a threat to Austria, with unsuccessful sieges of Vienna in 1529 and 1683. In 1682, the Ottomans moved against Austria in retaliation against Habsburg raids, but Vienna proved well-fortified. Allied forces eventually proved superior, and the resulting Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 granted some twenty years of relief.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, migration within the Habsburg Empire flowed from east to west, with immigrants settling primarily in the primary urban and industrial centres. During this period, the territory of today's Republic of Austria made up only about one-tenth of the Habsburg Empire, and migration was driven by industrialization, proletarization, and urbanization.
In the 1930s, many Austrians migrated to the United States, most of them Jews fleeing Nazi persecution following the Annexation of Austria in 1938. In 1941, around 29,000 Jewish Austrians had emigrated to the US, and between 1945 and 1960, about 40,000 Austrians made the same journey.
In 1945, Austria was restored to its 1937 frontiers and occupied by the victorious Allies until 1955. During this time, Austria granted asylum to refugees following the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Prague Spring Invasion. In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was ratified, with Austria declaring its permanent neutrality.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Austria recruited immigrant labour, particularly from Yugoslavia and Turkey. However, in the early 1990s, traditional labour migration and family reunification programs were curtailed following widespread public discontent over immigration levels. Austria's official line remains that it is not a traditional country of immigration, but the country's accession to the EU has brought more open borders, and thousands of temporary seasonal workers have been admitted.
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Austrian architecture and culture
In the late 17th century, Austria was a part of the vast Habsburg Empire, which stretched from present-day Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, and Czechia to the east and encompassed the majority of Central Europe. The empire was involved in the Great Turkish War, which began in 1683 with the unsuccessful siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks. By the end of the century, the Turkish threat had been repelled, and the arts and culture flourished under the leadership of Prince Eugene of Savoy. This period saw the construction of splendid edifices such as Schloss Schönbrunn and the Salzburger Dom, with notable architects including Johann Fischer von Erlach and Lukas von Hildebrandt.
The country's architecture and culture in the late 17th century were influenced by its rich history and diverse population. The area of present-day Austria has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age, with Celtic peoples settling in the eastern Alps around 400 BC and establishing the state of Noricum. The Germanic tribe of the Bavarii developed in the west of the country during the 5th and 6th centuries, while the Carantanians, a Slavic tribe, migrated to the eastern Alps during the 7th century.
During the 1300s, ecclesiastical architecture in Austria was dominated by the Hallenkirche (hall church) style, which originated in Germany. The earliest example of this style in Austria is the choir added to the abbey church of Heiligenkreuz in 1295. The most famous building in this style was the first incarnation of St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, which featured triple naves of equal height and a needle-shaped central spire completed in 1433.
The Gothic Age in Austria is known for its architecture, with the era's greatest surviving sculptures including the Enthroned Madonna of Klosterneuburg and the Servant's Madonna, housed in St. Stephan's Cathedral. By the late 14th century, Austrian sculpture was influenced by Bohemia, with elongated and idealized human forms set in graceful S curves.
The baroque period in Austria saw the construction of grandiose churches and spectacular palaces in Vienna. Artists and architects from Italy, such as Andrea Pozzo and von Hildebrandt, contributed to the development of the Viennese baroque style. The first noteworthy Austrian-born baroque painter was Johann Rottmayr, whose works adorn the ceilings of Schönbrunn Palace and Peterskirche.
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Austria's role in the Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. The war brought about a massive overall reduction in the population and changed the map of Europe irrevocably.
Secondly, the Thirty Years' War was also shaped by the wider struggle between France and the Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. Pope Urban VIII viewed Habsburg expansion in Italy as a threat to the Papal States, and his opposition to Ferdinand II divided the Catholic powers. This made it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against Austria and its allies. The conflict in Germany, therefore, became entangled with the rivalry between the French House of Bourbon and the Habsburgs, who ruled Spain and Austria.
Additionally, the war was influenced by the separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, the expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and the end of Spanish military supremacy in northern Europe. The Thirty Years' War marked a shift in European power dynamics, with France beginning to replace Spain as the predominant power on the continent.
Lastly, it is worth noting that the Thirty Years' War had a significant impact on Austria's population and society. The war caused widespread destruction and brutality, and the general populace suffered greatly. The specific casualties and losses for Austria are not readily available, but the war's overall reduction in population likely affected Austria as well.
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Frequently asked questions
In 1690, the territory that is now known as Austria was a part of the vast Habsburg monarchy, which was a composite monarchy made up of several legally separate realms. The Austrian lands were ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, who was also the King of Hungary and Bohemia. The country had been involved in the war with the Turks since 1683, which saw Belgrade fall to the Holy Roman Empire in 1688, only to be recaptured in 1690.
The territory of what is now Austria had been settled since the Paleolithic Age, with the first known state on Austrian territory being the Celtic kingdom of Noricum, which was founded around the second century BC. By the 7th century, the Germanic tribe of the Bavarii had settled in the west of the country, and Alemans had settled in Vorarlberg. The country was predominantly German-Slavic, with the Bavarians established as a stem dukedom in the northern Alps under Agilolfing rule.
In 1690, the world was still largely ruled by vast empires, with the Austrian Empire being the third-largest in Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was still in existence, and the War of the Grand Alliance was taking place, with Louis XIV of France leading an offensive against the German Palatinate.
