Lexi Webster
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as Austria-Hungary, was a union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, which existed from 1867 until the end of World War I in 1918. It was formed in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, following wars of independence by Hungary in opposition to Habsburg rule. The Compromise of 1867 created a dual monarchy, with a single ruler, who was the emperor of Austria and the king of Hungary. While the two halves shared a common monarch, foreign relations, and defence, they were otherwise treated as separate entities, with their own governments and state functions.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Official Name | Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Doppelmonarchie, Dual Monarchy |
| Type of State | Dual Monarchy, two independent states with a common ruler |
| Formation | Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich |
| Dissolution | 1918 |
| Predecessor States | Austrian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary |
| Successor States | Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania |
| Monarch | Emperor in Austria, King in Hungary |
| Monarch's Title | Francis I, Franz Joseph, Charles I |
| Government | Common government for matters of national security, separate governments for each state |
| Government Bodies | Ministerial Council for Common Affairs, two parliaments, delegations |
| Ministers | Foreign Affairs, War |
| Prime Minister | Friedrich Ferdinand, Graf (Count) von Beust |
| Population | Third-most populous country in the world |
| Geography | Second-largest country in Europe |
| Economy | Fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world |
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The agreement turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire (officially "Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", commonly known as Cisleithania) in the western and northern half, and the Kingdom of Hungary (officially "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania) in the eastern half. The Austrian government, which had ruled the monarchy until 1867, now governed only the Austrian part, while a separate government was formed for the Hungarian part.
The Compromise of 1867 restored the Kingdom of Hungary's territorial integrity and its old historic constitution, granting it full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry. In return, Hungary agreed that the empire should remain a single great state for purposes of war, foreign affairs, and dynastic prestige. Common affairs, including national security, the common army and navy, foreign policy, and the imperial household, were managed jointly, and there was a customs union. However, all other state functions were to be handled separately, and there was no common citizenship.
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was negotiated by Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák, who initially supported Hungarian independence but later advocated a modified union under the Habsburgs. Deák's belief in Hungary's right to full internal independence while recognising the Pragmatic Sanction of 1723, which designated defence and foreign affairs as "common" to both Austria and Hungary, influenced the terms of the Compromise. The agreement was, however, unpopular among many Hungarians, who saw it as a betrayal of their interests and the achievements of the 1848 Revolution.
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The Dual Monarchy
The Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, was a constitutional law passed by the Hungarian parliament that granted the Kingdom of Hungary full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry. In return, Hungary agreed that the empire should be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs. The common monarchy consisted of the emperor and his court, the minister for foreign affairs, and the minister of war. There was no common prime minister or cabinet, and common affairs were considered by delegations composed of representatives from the two parliaments.
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The Austrian Empire
In 1866, the Austrian army suffered a defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, which led to their expulsion from the German Confederation. This event triggered a reorientation of Austrian policy towards the east and an attempt to consolidate the heterogeneous empire. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, marking a significant turning point for the Austrian Empire.
The Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established a dual monarchy by joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities with equal status. This agreement turned the Habsburg domains into a real union, with a common monarch but separate governments and state functions for each half. While foreign relations and defence were managed jointly, Hungary gained full internal autonomy and had its own parliament and considerable independence.
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The Kingdom of Hungary
In the revolutions of 1848, the Kingdom of Hungary called for greater self-government and later even independence from the Austrian Empire. The ensuing Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was crushed by the Austrian military with Russian assistance. In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights, but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution.
In 1866, Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War, which resulted in the expulsion of Austria from the German Confederation. This caused Emperor Franz Joseph to reorient his policy toward the east and to consolidate his heterogeneous empire. The outcome of negotiations was the Ausgleich concluded on February 8, 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania) in the western and northern half and the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania) in the eastern half. The Kingdom of Hungary received full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry, and, in return, agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs.
The government of Austria, which had ruled the monarchy until 1867, became the government of the Austrian part, and another government was formed for the Hungarian part. There was to be no common prime minister (other than Franz Joseph himself) and no common cabinet. The common affairs were to be considered at the delegations, composed of representatives from the two parliaments. There was to be a customs union and a sharing of accounts, which was to be revised every 10 years. This decennial revision gave the Hungarians a recurring opportunity to levy blackmail on the rest of the empire.
The Compromise of 1867 turned the Habsburg domains into a dual monarchy, with the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joining on an equal basis. The Kingdom of Hungary had a name, a king, and a history of its own. The rest of the empire was a casual agglomeration without even a clear description. Technically, it was known as “the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat” or, more shortly, as “the other Imperial half.” The mistaken practice soon grew of describing this nameless unit as “Austria” or “Austria proper”.
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World War I and collapse
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a major power in Europe, being the second-largest country geographically and the third most populous. It was formed in 1867 following the Austro-Prussian War, in which Austria was defeated, and the subsequent Austro-Hungarian Compromise. The Compromise of 1867 united the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in a dual monarchy under the Habsburgs, with each kingdom maintaining its own government and parliament.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 was the catalyst for World War I, with Austria-Hungary invading Serbia, leading to a wider conflict. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers, alongside the German and Ottoman Empires. The Austro-Hungarian Army suffered heavy losses, particularly in the Brusilov Offensive in 1916, where they lost about 1 million men. The multi-ethnic nature of the army also caused issues, with low morale, supply shortages, and civil rights abuses. The Dual Monarchy became increasingly dependent on German assistance, and by 1916, the Germans considered them a liability.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was further weakened by the October Revolution in 1917 and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements from 1918, which encouraged socialism and nationalism. The empire's economy collapsed, leading to starvation and severe hardship, and the multi-ethnic army lost its morale. The Italian front collapsed, and the Austrians were forced to accept the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918.
In September 1918, the Austro-Hungarian government proposed a general peace conference, but this was rejected by the United States. On 16 October 1918, Emperor Charles granted autonomy to the peoples of the Austrian Empire, but this concession was ignored internationally. The Czechoslovaks in Prague and the South Slavs in Zagreb had already set up independent governments, and the Hungarians in Budapest established a National Council, seeking peace and separation from Austria. On 31 October, Count Mihály Károlyi was appointed prime minister of Hungary, and he began to dissociate the country from Austria. On 11 November, Emperor Charles renounced his right to participate in Austrian affairs, and on 13 November, he did the same for Hungarian affairs, effectively ending Habsburg rule. The Republic of German Austria was proclaimed, and on 16 November, the Hungarian Democratic Republic was established, marking the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
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Frequently asked questions
The Austrian-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a central European monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918. It was formed by the Compromise of 1867, which created a dual monarchy with a king of Hungary and an Austrian emperor, who was the same person.
The Compromise of 1867, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, was an agreement between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form a dual monarchy. This agreement was made in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, which resulted in the expulsion of Austria from the German Confederation.
The Austrian-Hungarian Empire was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities with equal status. The Kingdom of Hungary had its own parliament and considerable autonomy, and its own institutions that administered the kingdom separately from the rest of the empire.
