Ruqayyah Snyder
Austria-Hungary's expansionist policy in the Balkans was driven by a desire to prevent Russia from establishing itself as the protector of the Orthodox Balkan Slavs and to drive a corridor through the Balkans to Constantinople, thereby controlling Turkey. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 was a unilateral action that upset the fragile balance of power in the region, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists and leading to the Bosnian Crisis. This action was part of a broader imperialistic approach by major powers to colonize the last remaining 'available' territories in Europe, with the Balkans being the final territorial reserve.
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What You'll Learn
Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary occurred on 6 October 1908. The annexation was announced by Emperor Franz Joseph, who ordered the composition of a constitution for the two provinces. This annexation was not without its complexities and consequences, as it upset the delicate balance of power in the Balkans and enraged Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists across Europe.
Bosnia and Herzegovina were dual provinces in the Balkan region of Europe, formerly under Ottoman control. While they were nominally under Ottoman rule in 1908, Austria-Hungary had been administering these provinces since the Congress of Berlin in 1878. This administration was granted by the great powers of Europe, who allowed the Dual Monarchy to occupy the provinces while legal ownership remained with Turkey. This decision aimed to maintain the balance of power in Europe, as both Austria and Hungary desired control of these provinces, and the provinces themselves had strong nationalist ambitions.
Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a unilateral action that sparked protests from the Great Powers and its Balkan neighbours, particularly Serbia and Montenegro. This event, known as the Bosnian Crisis, marked the beginning of a diplomatic crisis that damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia. The crisis was resolved in April 1909 with an amendment to the Treaty of Berlin, recognising the annexation.
The annexation was influenced by the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire, which Austria-Hungarian authorities feared could spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina, gaining support from the Bosnian Muslims and Serbs. Additionally, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Alois Aehrenthal, saw an opportunity to solidify their position towards Serbia through this annexation. He corresponded with Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky, who proposed the annexation as part of a deal to secure better access to the Turkish Straits for Russian naval vessels.
The annexation caused unrest among the Muslim and Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it permanently damaged relations with neighbouring countries, especially Serbia, which had its own expansionist ambitions in the region.
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German-Austrian alliance
The German-Austrian alliance, also known as the Dual Alliance, was a pact between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire formed in October 1879. The alliance was part of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances, which aimed to prevent Germany's isolation and preserve peace by limiting the likelihood of war. Indeed, the formation of a unified Germany in 1871 had disrupted the old 'balance of power' in Europe.
The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was particularly focused on mutual defence against potential Russian aggression. Both powers promised to support each other in the event of an attack by Russia and to remain neutral if either was attacked by another European power (generally assumed to be France, especially after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894). The addition of Italy to the alliance in 1882 created the Triple Alliance.
The German-Austrian alliance was underpinned by shared interests and goals in the Balkans. Germany, working through Austria-Hungary, sought to exert control over the Balkans, hold Constantinople, and control Turkey. This brought them into conflict with Russia, which also sought to control the Balkans and Constantinople in the name of Pan-Slavism. The Balkans were a strategically important region of Europe, sandwiched between Europe and Asia and bordering both the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
Austria-Hungary's interests in the Balkans were multi-faceted. On the one hand, Austria-Hungary sought to crush Serbian nationalism, which threatened the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbian nationalist groups aimed to free Serbia from foreign control, particularly that of Austria-Hungary, and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 further fuelled Serbian nationalism. On the other hand, Austria-Hungary could be seen as a model for the Balkans, as it successfully managed a medley of quarrelsome and jealous races, maintaining order, cooperation, and a fair degree of prosperity and education.
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Serbian nationalism
The origins of Serbian nationalism date back to the 19th century, with the 1804 uprisings against Ottoman rule and the establishment of an independent Serbian state in 1878. However, Serbian nationalists themselves cite the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 as the true origin of the movement. The Serbian folk tradition of epic martial poetry from the 14th century stimulated widespread resistance to Ottoman rule and promoted the emergence of Serbian national consciousness.
In the early 20th century, several Serb nationalist groups formed, with their primary aim being to free Serbia from foreign control and influence, particularly that of Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 deeply alienated the Serbian people and roused nationalist movements in the region. Groups like the Narodna Odbrana ('People's Defence'), Crna Ruka ('Black Hand'), and Mlada Bosna ('Young Bosnia') formed between 1908 and 1911, seeking to drive out the Austro-Hungarians.
The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 further fuelled Serbian nationalism and caused alarm in Austria-Hungary. Serbia, along with Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria, formed the Balkan League and went to war with the Ottomans, decisively expelling them from most of the Balkans. This expansion of Serbia threatened the stability of Austro-Hungary and its aspirations for direct rail connections to Constantinople and the Middle East. It also disrupted the balance of power in Europe, causing Great Powers like Russia, France, and Germany to take sides in the conflict.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb revolutionary and member of Crna Ruka, provided the Austro-Hungarian government with a pretext for crushing Serbian nationalism, which it had long desired. This assassination led to a clash of alliances and the eruption of World War I. Serbian nationalism thus played a crucial role in the lead-up to the war, contributing to the complex network of tensions and alliances that characterised the pre-war Balkans.
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Russian influence
Russia, in the name of Panslavism, had its eyes on the Balkans. It wished to control the region, possess Constantinople and the Straits, and turn the Black Sea into a Russian lake. This desire to control the Balkans was also driven by strategic reasons.
The Balkan Wars forced the Great Powers to revisit their foreign policies in the region, especially Russia, which was now dependent on Serbia as a buffer against Austro-Hungarian aggression. Russia encouraged several Serb nationalist groups, such as the Narodna Odbrana, Crna Ruka, and Mlada Bosna, that had formed in the early 1900s. These groups sought to free Serbia from foreign control and plotted acts of terrorism, including the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914.
The Germans, working through Austria-Hungary, also wished to drive a corridor through the Balkans, hold Constantinople, and control Turkey. This led to a breach with Russia, which was widened by the German-Austrian alliance of 1879. The Russians had previously given up their plans for a "'great partition'" of the Balkans in 1876, settling for the territory of Bessarabia and acquiescing in Austria-Hungary's acquiring of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, in 1878, Russia violated Austria-Hungary's Balkan interests by creating a large independent Bulgaria.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire saw itself as a model of what the Balkans should be – a diverse medley of quarrelsome and jealous races that enjoyed order, cooperation, prosperity, and education. The Slavs, a significant part of the Empire, had gained a majority in the Reichsrat in 1907, and there were efforts to give them self-government. However, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 threw Serbia into the arms of Russia, leading to the formation of the Balkan League in 1912 and the war against Turkey.
The developments in the Balkans in 1912-13 threatened the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and they began taking a tougher stance against Serbia. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand provided the pretext for crushing Serbian nationalism, which Austria-Hungary had long desired.
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Austro-Hungarian generals' attitude towards Serbia
The Austro-Hungarian generals' attitude towards Serbia was one of suspicion and hostility, seeing the small kingdom as a threat to the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo was the final straw, providing the pretext for war and the crushing of Serbian nationalism, which the Austro-Hungarian government had long desired.
The Austro-Hungarian generals had been wary of Serbia for some time before World War I. Serbia's expansion threatened the Hapsburg Empire, which had already lost territory to the Italians and Russians in the 1870s. The developments in the Balkans in 1912-13 hinted at further losses, and so the Austro-Hungarian generals began to take an aggressive stance towards Serbia. They were confident in their ability to defeat the Serbs, despite their military strength and equipment lagging behind that of Germany.
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 had already roused nationalist movements in the region, with groups like the Narodna Odbrana and Crna Ruka forming and seeking to drive out the Austro-Hungarians. These groups were encouraged by Russian agents and members of the Serbian government, military, and public service. Their activities included political agitation, anti-Austrian propaganda, and even plotting acts of terrorism.
When Serbia's response to the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum of July 1914 was deemed unsatisfactory, the Austro-Hungarian government broke off diplomatic relations and began preparing for war. The invasion of Serbia was led by Feldzeugmeister Oskar Potiorek, who exploited the Austro-Hungarian superiority in artillery to capture Serbian towns and cities. However, the Austro-Hungarian army suffered nearly 30,000 casualties, and their invasion was temporarily halted by a sustained Serbian counterattack.
The failure to quickly defeat Serbia, a small Balkan kingdom, wounded the pride of the Austro-Hungarian military and civilian leadership. Despite ultimately conquering and occupying Serbia, the Austro-Hungarians' failure to do so quickly and decisively demonstrated the limitations of their military might and the effectiveness of Serbian resistance.
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Frequently asked questions
In 1908, the Austro-Hungarians formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been under their military and civilian rule since 1878. This was done to assert dominance in the Balkans, as the Ottoman Empire was in a weakened state and Russia, their great rival for power in the region, had also suffered losses. The annexation was meant to be a show of strength and a cause for unity within Austria-Hungary.
The annexation upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe. It fuelled nationalist movements in Serbia and contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Serbia's expansion threatened the stability of Austria-Hungary, leading to rising tensions between the two nations.
Austria-Hungary's interest in the Balkans stemmed from its strategic location and political volatility. The region was sandwiched between Europe and Asia, and between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, making it a desirable gateway to Constantinople and control over Turkey. Additionally, the Balkans were occupied by a cluster of nations with competing nationalist sentiments, providing an opportunity for expansion and influence.
