Treaties Ending Empires: Austria-Hungary's Demise

The breakup of Austria-Hungary was formalized by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on September 10, 1919, between the victorious Allies of World War I and the Republic of German-Austria. The treaty recognized the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia), and established the Republic of Austria. The Treaty of Trianon, signed on June 4, 1920, between Hungary and the Allies, further cemented the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Hungary ceding territories to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, and recognizing its new international borders.

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The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye

The treaty consisted of 381 articles, divided into 14 parts, and was written in French, English, and Italian. Notably, the treaty included the Covenant of the League of Nations, which resulted in the United States establishing its own treaty with Austria in 1921, rather than signing the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

The treaty had significant political and economic impacts on the region. It established new borders for Austria, reducing its territory to approximately 40% of its pre-treaty size. These new borders acted as economic barriers, stalling the previously rapid economic growth of the former imperial territories. The treaty also recognised the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia), and ceded various territories to Italy.

In terms of military provisions, the treaty limited Austria's army to 30,000 volunteers and broke up the Austro-Hungarian navy, distributing its ships among the Allies. It also included clauses prohibiting Austria from compromising its independence by entering into a political or economic union with the Weimar Republic without the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations.

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The Treaty of Trianon

Under the terms of the treaty, Hungary's borders were redrawn, resulting in a significant loss of territory and population for the country. Hungary was stripped of at least two-thirds of its land and two-thirds of its inhabitants, with large regions being ceded to neighbouring countries such as Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania, and even Austria, another loser in the war. The treaty also laid down rules for the restoration of economic relations between Hungary and foreign countries, including its neighbours and former allies.

The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians were faced with the option to accept or reject its terms in full. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately. Even the United States did not ratify the treaty, instead negotiating a separate peace treaty that did not contradict its terms.

To this day, the Treaty of Trianon is considered a national wound in Hungary, with monuments erected to commemorate the loss of territory and sovereignty. While some in Hungary continue to mourn the treaty's legacy, others believe that the country should move forward and focus on building new alliances with its former adversaries.

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The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Army

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was catalysed by the stressors of World War I, which placed immense pressure on the multi-ethnic army. The army was the principal ground force of Austria-Hungary from 1867 until the end of the war in 1918. The military breakdown of the Italian front marked the start of rebellion for the numerous ethnicities that made up the empire, as they refused to keep fighting for a cause that appeared increasingly futile. The Austro-Hungarian Army was plagued by supply shortages, low morale, and a lack of political support. The final blow came with the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which culminated in the collapse of the army.

The Austro-Hungarian Army was a diverse force, reflecting the multi-ethnic nature of the empire. In 1906, out of every 1000 enlisted men, there were 267 Germans, 223 Hungarians, 135 Czechs, 85 Poles, 81 Ruthenians, 67 Croats, 64 Romanians, 38 Slovaks, 26 Slovenes, and 14 Italians. The army developed a simplified language called Army Slavic, based on Czech, to aid communication between different ethnic groups. The army was officially under the control of the Commander-in-Chief, Emperor Franz Josef, but by 1914, the 84-year-old emperor had ceded much of his authority to the chief of staff, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Conrad von Hötzendorf favoured an aggressive foreign policy and advocated for military solutions to territorial disputes with Italy and Serbia.

The army was composed of three main organisations: the Common Army, recruited from all parts of Austria-Hungary; the Imperial-Royal Landwehr, recruited from Cisleithania; and the Royal Hungarian Honvéd, recruited from Transleithania. The Common Army units were generally poorly trained and lacked access to modern equipment due to the competing priorities of the Austrian and Hungarian governments. The long-standing white infantry uniforms were replaced with dark blue tunics in the late 19th century, and later with cadet grey uniforms during the early stages of World War I. In September 1915, field grey was adopted as the new official uniform colour.

The Austro-Hungarian Army played a significant role in suppressing internal unrest within the empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were deployed against German nationalists in Graz, Czech nationalists in Prague, and Italian rioters in Trieste. The most notable action of the army during this period was the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, which resulted in heavy casualties and recriminations between commanders and political leaders.

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The Habsburg Law

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was formalised in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on 10 September 1919, which recognised the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). The treaty also included war reparations to be paid by Austria and limited its army to 30,000 men.

The Treaty of Trianon, signed in June 1920, completed the disposition of the former Dual Monarchy and declared the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The treaty also regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, reducing them to small, landlocked states. The new borders created economic barriers and had significant political and economic effects.

The impact on Hungary

The Treaty of Trianon, signed on June 4, 1920, had a significant impact on Hungary, which was a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. The treaty, which formally ended the state of war between the Allies and the Kingdom of Hungary, resulted in major territorial changes and recognised new international borders for the country.

Loss of Territory and Population

Hungary suffered a significant loss of territory due to the Treaty of Trianon. The country lost at least two-thirds of its pre-war territory, reducing its land area from 282,870 square kilometres to 91,114 square kilometres. This loss of territory also resulted in a substantial reduction in Hungary's population, with only about 41% of its pre-war population remaining within the new borders. Regions such as Slovakia, Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia, Pressburg (Bratislava), and other minor sites were ceded to Czechoslovakia. Croatia-Slavonia and part of the Banat were given to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). Transylvania and most of Banat were awarded to Romania, while Fiume went to Italy.

Economic and Trade Barriers

The new borders created by the treaty posed significant economic challenges for Hungary. The previously rapid economic growth of the imperial territories stalled as the borders became major barriers to trade and economic cooperation. The loss of territory and population also meant a reduction in economic resources and markets for Hungary.

Military Restrictions

The Treaty of Trianon imposed restrictions on Hungary's military capabilities. The country's armed forces were limited to 35,000 men, who were to be lightly armed and tasked primarily with maintaining internal order and securing the frontiers. This significantly weakened Hungary's military power and ability to defend itself or pursue an aggressive foreign policy.

Political and Cultural Impact

The treaty had a lasting impact on Hungarian politics and culture. Hungarian officials and nationalists strongly opposed the treaty, considering it a violation of Hungary's historical character and the displacement of many ethnic Magyars. The perceived injustice of the treaty sowed the seeds of resentment, ethnic conflict, and interwar tension. Some commentators have even likened the treaty's impact to a "collective pathology" that contributed to a narrative of Hungarian victimhood at the hands of foreign powers.

Attempts at Revision

Hungary continuously agitated for the revision of the Treaty of Trianon, and minor modifications were made between 1921 and 1924 regarding the Hungarian-Austrian border. However, the current boundaries of Hungary are still largely defined by the treaty, reflecting the lasting impact of the territorial changes it imposed.

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