Leslie Massey
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a union of two sovereign states with a single monarch, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. It was formed in 1867 after the Austro-Prussian War and lasted until 1918 when it collapsed after World War I. The two states that made up the empire, Austria and Hungary, became independent nations after the union was dissolved. In addition to these two successor states, the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire also led to the creation or expansion of several other states, including the First Austrian Republic, the Kingdom of Hungary, and the First Hungarian Republic.
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What You'll Learn
German Austria
The Republic of German-Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich) was an unrecognised state created after World War I, as a rump state for areas with a predominantly German-speaking and ethnic German population within what had been the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was formed with the intention of eventual unification with Germany. German-Austria covered an area of 118,311 km2 (45,680 sq mi), with 10.4 million inhabitants. However, its authority was limited to the Danubian and Alpine provinces which had been the core of Cisleithania.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was a military and diplomatic alliance, consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies, with common ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance under the monarch's direct authority.
The origins of the Austro-Hungarian Empire can be traced back to the Compromise of 1867, which was a constitutional compromise (Ausgleich) between Emperor Franz Joseph and Hungary, which had been a part of the empire. The agreement was a compromise between the emperor and Hungary, not between Hungary and the rest of the empire, and it granted Hungary full internal autonomy. The rest of the empire was a casual agglomeration without a clear description, often referred to as “Austria” or “Cisleithania”.
In 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was facing increasing military failure and defeat in World War I, as well as domestic unrest due to food and fuel shortages. The demands of the empire's nationalities were becoming increasingly radicalised, encouraged by Woodrow Wilson's commitment to self-determination. In October 1918, the independence of Czechoslovakia and the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs were declared, and Hungary withdrew from the dual monarchy. The Austro-Hungarian army surrendered to Italy, and the last Habsburg emperor, Karl I, relinquished his powers.
With the impending collapse of the empire, the deputies representing German-speaking areas in the lower chamber of the Reichsrat, the imperial Parliament of Cisleithania, declared themselves the new Provisional National Assembly for German-Austria. The largest political grouping was the German nationalists, who favoured union with Germany. However, attempts to unify with Germany were ultimately unsuccessful, as it was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, created by the victors of World War I.
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First Austrian Republic
The First Austrian Republic was formed in the aftermath of World War I, after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multinational constitutional monarchy in Central Europe that consisted of two sovereign states: the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, with a single monarch.
The First Austrian Republic faced significant challenges from the outset due to the war's disastrous legacy. The war effort and the breakup of the Habsburg empire resulted in economic exhaustion, social distress, and poverty, leading to revolutionary activities and the threat of Bolshevism. Karl I's refusal to abdicate and attempts to reclaim the throne in Budapest were ultimately unsuccessful, and he was exiled. The German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria, which became the First Austrian Republic.
The First Republic was marked by political division and instability. The Christian Socialists emerged as the strongest party in the 1920 elections, while the Social Democrats and German Nationalists gained fewer seats. The Social Democrats went into opposition and never returned to power during the First Republic. The system of proportional representation and the ideological differences between Austrian parties made shifts in political allegiance unlikely.
The First Austrian Republic also dealt with the issue of union with Germany. Despite opposition from the Allies, plebiscites in western provinces showed strong support for Anschluss ("union") with Germany. However, the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) prohibited this union without the consent of the League of Nations, and Austria was forced to change its name from German-Austria to the Republic of Austria. The new state faced territorial losses, with German-populated regions ceded to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia).
The political divisions and instability of the First Austrian Republic persisted, and it eventually collapsed amid the rise of left-wing and conservative resistance groups during World War II. The Austrian Civil War of February 1934 further escalated the tensions, with Social Democrats clashing against government forces. On May 1, 1934, Dollfuss established a one-party state led by the Fatherland Front and introduced an authoritarian "May Constitution," changing the country's name once again to the "Federal State of Austria."
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First Hungarian Republic
The First Hungarian Republic was formed in the aftermath of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which created a dual monarchy consisting of the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The First World War led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, and on 31 October 1918, the Aster Revolution began in Budapest, leading to the creation of the First Hungarian Republic.
On 31 October 1918, King Charles IV appointed the leader of the revolt, Mihály Károlyi, as Hungarian prime minister. Károlyi's first act was to formally terminate the personal union between Austria and Hungary. On 13 November, Charles issued a proclamation withdrawing from Hungarian politics, and a few days later, the provisional government proclaimed Hungary a people's republic, with Károlyi as both prime minister and interim president. This event ended 400 years of rule by the House of Habsburg.
The Károlyi government attempted to implement a liberal-socialist domestic agenda. They extended the right to vote to all men over the age of 21 and all literate women over 24, increasing suffrage to about 50% of the population. The government also approved resolutions guaranteeing the freedoms of assembly, association, and the press. However, the Károlyi government's measures failed to stem popular discontent, especially when the Entente powers began distributing slices of what many considered Hungary's traditional territory to other countries.
The First Hungarian Republic lasted only four and a half months. On 21 March 1919, a leftist alliance of the Party of Communists in Hungary and the Hungarian Social Democratic Party declared the establishment of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
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Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic state that existed from its inception until the Treaty of Trianon. It covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and other parts of Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), the territory of Burgenland (now part of Austria), Međimurje (now part of Croatia), Prekmurje (now part of Slovenia), and a few villages that are now part of Poland.
The Kingdom of Hungary was preceded by the Principality of Hungary, which was established in the late 9th century by Álmos and his son Árpád through the conquest of the Carpathian Basin. The first king of Hungary was Stephen I (also known as Saint Stephen I), who ascended the throne in 1000 and converted his realm to a Christian kingdom. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–1946, ending under Soviet occupation in 1946.
In 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The Kingdom of Hungary had a name, a king, and a history of its own, while the rest of the empire was a casual agglomeration without even a clear description. The Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 granted Hungary considerable autonomy over its internal affairs and control over its non-Magyar ethnic groups. The Emperor of Austria was also King of Hungary, and the two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies.
Hungary received full internal autonomy, together with a responsible ministry, and, in return, agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs. This “common monarchy” consisted of the emperor and his court, the minister for foreign affairs, and the minister of war. There was no common prime minister (other than the emperor himself) and no common cabinet. The common affairs were to be considered at the delegations, composed of representatives from the two parliaments. There was to be a customs union and a sharing of accounts, which was to be revised every 10 years.
The monarchy of the Kingdom of Hungary ended with the deposition of the last king, Charles IV, in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. On 16 November 1918, the Hungarian Democratic Republic was proclaimed. The Hungarian parliament declared independence from Austria on 17 October 1918, and an independent government was formed on 1 November. Austria-Hungary concluded an armistice with the Allies on 3 November. A separate Military Convention between the Allies and Hungary, signed on 13 November, called for the withdrawal and demobilization of Hungarian armed forces.
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Bosnia and Herzegovina
In 1882, Common Finance Minister Benjamin Kállay, a specialist in South Slav history, took over the governance of Bosnia and Herzegovina, directing its policy until 1903. Kállay's rule preserved the Ottoman administrative division and laws, only gradually replacing or supplementing them. One of the most notable aspects of his rule was a public works program that resulted in the development of infrastructure, including an extensive railway and road network, as well as mines, factories, and agriculture. However, a common criticism of Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina was that it failed to adequately address the tensions between landlords and peasants.
In 1908, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, provoking a diplomatic crisis known as the Bosnian Crisis. This annexation upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, angering Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe. It also led to the growth of revolutionary groups and secret societies dedicated to overthrowing Habsburg rule. Despite this, Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Austro-Hungarian military rule throughout World War I, and repressive measures were applied to Bosnian Serbs.
After World War I, Bosnian politicians joined the political leaders of Croatia and Slovenia in throwing off Habsburg rule and creating a new South Slav state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states.
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Frequently asked questions
The two legal successor states of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy were German Austria, which became the First Austrian Republic, and the Hungarian (People's) Republic, which later became the Kingdom of Hungary.
Austria-Hungary collapsed in 1918.
Austria-Hungary was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe. It was also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy, or the Habsburg Monarchy.
The Dual Monarchy was a union between Cisleithania, the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire, and Transleithania (the Kingdom of Hungary).
