Why Portugal Granted Angola Its Freedom

Portugal's Estado Novo dictatorship was overthrown by a peaceful coup in Lisbon in April 1974, which brought an end to the Angolan War of Independence. The new regime immediately ceased all military action in its African colonies and expressed its intention to grant them independence without delay. This led to a civil war between the three nationalist movements vying for control of Angola. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) eventually took power, with support from Cuba and the Soviet Union, and declared itself the government of the independent Angola in November 1975.

The Angolan War of Independence (1961-1974)

In the early 20th century, Angola had been a colony of Portugal for over 400 years, and the Portuguese government had implemented a system of segregation and discrimination against the native Angolan population. The Angolans were subject to forced labour, their land and resources were exploited, and they were denied basic political and social rights. As a result, resentment towards Portuguese rule grew, and various nationalist movements emerged, advocating for Angola's independence and the end of colonial oppression.

The three main Angolan nationalist movements were the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). These groups had different ideological orientations and ethnic bases of support, but they all shared the common goal of achieving independence from Portugal.

The Angolan War of Independence began in 1961 when the MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA launched armed insurgencies against the Portuguese colonial government. The nationalist movements had support from various foreign countries, including the Soviet Union and Cuba, which provided military aid and training. The war consisted primarily of guerrilla warfare, with the nationalist forces engaging in hit-and-run tactics and sabotaging Portuguese infrastructure and economic targets.

The Portuguese government responded to the insurgencies with a massive military buildup in Angola, sending over 50,000 troops and engaging in counterinsurgency campaigns. Despite their superior firepower and technological advantage, the Portuguese forces struggled to defeat the nationalist guerrillas, who had strong local support and knowledge of the terrain. The war proved to be extremely costly for Portugal, both financially and in terms of human lives, and it became increasingly unpopular with the Portuguese public.

As the war dragged on, the Portuguese government faced growing international pressure to grant independence to its African colonies. The United Nations had passed several resolutions condemning Portuguese colonial policies and calling for Angola's self-determination. Additionally, other European powers had already begun granting independence to their colonies, and Portugal was becoming isolated diplomatically.

Finally, in April 1974, a left-wing military coup, known as the Carnation Revolution, took place in Portugal, overthrowing the authoritarian Estado Novo regime. The new Portuguese government recognised the right of Angola and other Portuguese colonies to independence and began negotiating with the nationalist movements. The Alvor Agreement was signed in January 1975, recognising Angola's independence and establishing a transitional government composed of the MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA.

In conclusion, the Angolan War of Independence was a pivotal event in Angola's struggle for freedom from colonial rule. The war, along with international pressure and changing political dynamics in Portugal, ultimately led to Portugal's decision to grant independence to Angola. The conflict had significant consequences for both countries, shaping their political, social, and economic trajectories in the years to come.

The Carnation Revolution (1974)

The Carnation Revolution, also known as the 25th of April, was a military coup that began on the 25th of April 1974 in Lisbon, Portugal. It overthrew the authoritarian Estado Novo government, which had been in power since the 1930s, and ended the Portuguese Colonial War. The revolution was led by the Armed Forces Movement (MFA), composed of military officers who opposed the regime.

The revolution's name came about because almost no shots were fired, and when the population took to the streets to celebrate the end of the dictatorship, carnation flowers were put into the muzzles of rifles and on the uniforms of the army.

The Carnation Revolution led to major social, economic, territorial, demographic, and political changes in Portugal and its overseas colonies. It resulted in the transition to democracy in Portugal and the withdrawal of Portuguese troops from Portuguese Guinea, which became a UN member state as Guinea-Bissau. This was followed by the independence of several other African colonies, including Angola, in 1975.

The Carnation Revolution put an end to the unpopular Colonial War, in which hundreds of thousands of Portuguese soldiers had been conscripted. It also ended the Estado Novo regime and its secret police, which repressed civil liberties and political freedoms.

The revolution was closely watched by neighbouring Spain, which was planning for the succession of dictator Francisco Franco, who died in 1975.

The Alvor Agreement (1975)

The Alvor Agreement, signed on 15 January 1975 in Alvor, Portugal, marked the end of the 13-year-long Angolan War of Independence and granted Angola independence from Portugal on 11 November 1975. The agreement was signed by the Portuguese government, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). It established a transitional government composed of representatives of those four parties, with the Portuguese High Commissioner Admiral Rosa Coutinho and a Prime Ministerial Council (PMC) ruling until independence. The PMC consisted of three representatives, one from each Angolan party to the agreement, with a rotating premiership among the representatives. Every PMC decision required two-thirds support. The twelve ministries were divided among the Angolan parties and the Portuguese government, three for each.

The agreement was not signed by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) or the Eastern Revolt as the other parties excluded them from negotiations. The transitional government soon fell apart, with each of the nationalist factions, distrustful of the others and unwilling to share power, attempting to take control of the country by force, which initiated the Angolan Civil War.

The Portuguese government's main goal in the negotiations was to prevent the mass emigration of white Angolans. Paradoxically, the agreement only allowed the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA to nominate candidates for the first assembly elections, deliberately disenfranchising the Bakongo in the east of the country, the Cabindese, and whites. The Portuguese reasoned that white Angolans would have to join the nationalist movements, and the movements would have to moderate their platforms to expand their political bases.

The agreement called for the integration of the militant wings of the Angolan parties into a new military, the Angolan Defence Forces (ADF). The ADF would have 48,000 active personnel, made up of 24,000 local Black soldiers of the Portuguese Army and 8,000 fighters each from the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA. Each party was to maintain separate barracks and outposts, and every military decision required the unanimous consent of each party's headquarters and the joint military command.

The treaty, to which the FLEC never agreed, described Cabinda as an "integral and inalienable part of Angola". Separatists view the agreement as a violation of Cabindan right to self-determination. By August 1975, the MPLA had taken control of Cabinda.

The role of the US and USSR

The US and USSR played a significant role in Angola's independence from Portugal. The US supported the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), while the USSR backed the Marxist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).

The US and the USSR were already engaged in the Cold War, and Angola's independence struggle became a Cold War battleground. The US and the USSR provided military assistance and training to their respective allies. The US supplied aid and training to the FNLA and UNITA, while the USSR provided military training and equipment to the MPLA.

The US also encouraged the intervention of the South African government in Angola, which aimed to counter the growing Chinese presence in the region. However, when it became known that South Africa's involvement included support for UNITA, there was domestic resistance in the US to its role in the Angolan conflict.

The USSR, on the other hand, had a close relationship with Cuba, which played a crucial role in supporting the MPLA. Cuba sent troops and military instructors to Angola, which proved decisive in the conflict.

The involvement of the US and the USSR in Angola's independence struggle had significant consequences for their bilateral relations. The Angola crisis contributed to straining relations between the two superpowers and accelerated the end of the détente period, a brief thaw in their relations. The failure of the US to achieve its desired outcome in Angola also raised the stakes of the superpower competition in the Third World.

The role of Cuba

Cuba's involvement in Angola can be traced back to the 1960s as part of the "Second Revolution" movement announced by Fidel Castro. The movement intended to bring Marxism–Leninism to Africa, starting in Zaire (today known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Cuba's relationship with Angola was strengthened by their mutual support for Marxist ideology, with the leader of the MPLA, Agostinho Neto, having very strong Marxist leanings.

In 1975, Portugal decided to pull out of its African colonies, including Angola, which had vast amounts of oil and an abundance of other natural resources. Cuba, recognising the strategic importance of Angola, focused on primarily supporting Angolan Marxist rebel movements over the liberation movements of other Portuguese colonies, thus beginning the special relationship between Cuba and Angola.

Cuba played a significant role in the Angolan Civil War, fighting alongside the Marxist–Leninist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government against the Western-backed National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) guerrillas, who were aided by the South African army. Cuba provided military support to the MPLA, including weapons, troops, and strategic planning.

The Cuban involvement in Angola extended beyond the military sphere. Cuba provided medical assistance, with Cuban doctors becoming so prominent that Spanish became known as the language of medicine in Angola. Cuba also provided educational support, offering bursaries for Angolans to study at Cuban universities and sending teachers to Angola.

However, there were also strains in the relationship between Cuba and Angola. Cubans were given special privileges in Angola, which created a sense of resentment among Angolans, who felt like second-class citizens in their own country. There were also incidents of systematic plundering of Angolan property by Cubans, further damaging the relationship.

Despite these issues, Cuba's role in Angola was significant in shaping the country's history and strengthening the ties between the two nations.

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