Leslie Massey
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a major European power before World War I, occupied much of central Europe and was the continent's second-largest nation by territory. The empire's military forces fought the Allies in Serbia, on the Eastern Front, in Italy, and in Romania. Notably, the Italians and Austro-Hungarians engaged in a prolonged mountain war in the Alpine frontier, where the Austro-Hungarians retreated to dominant positions near mountain tops, which were easy to defend. Mount Zebio, for instance, was one of the strongholds chosen as a retreat position by the Austro-Hungarian army in 1916.
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What You'll Learn
Mount Zebio
In 1916, the Italian High Command grew frustrated with their limited offensive successes against the Austro-Hungarians. The Italians aimed to conquer the mountain tops to threaten the valleys behind and shorten their frontline. Mount Zebio, in particular, became a site of intense conflict. Emilio Lussu, a Sardinian student who volunteered for the Italian army in 1915, found himself in the midst of the brutal fighting on Mount Zebio. His unit, the Brigata Sassari, composed of Sardinian peasants, shepherds, and hunters, earned a reputation for their courage in trench warfare, gaining the nickname "Red Devils" from the Austrians.
Lussu's brigade arrived at Mount Zebio after several days of pursuing the rapidly redeploying Austro-Hungarian army. The Italians immediately began trench work, but their initial frontal assault on the well-prepared Austrian lines proved futile. The Italians faced difficulties due to the Austro-Hungarians' advantageous position on the mountain, which offered a natural defensive barrier for their empire. The Italians' attempts to overcome this defensive position were hindered by the Austro-Hungarians' superior artillery, machine guns, and equipment.
Today, Mount Zebio stands as a peaceful reminder of the past. The site has been transformed into an open-air eco-museum, offering visitors a relaxing walk through fragrant mountain forests. Visitors can explore the remnants of Italian trenches, discover interesting artifacts in the no-man's land, and reflect on the multinational character of the forces involved in the conflict.
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The Transylvanian mountains
The Transylvanian Alps, also known as the Southern Carpathians, are a group of mountain ranges located in south-central Romania. Covering the part of the Carpathian Mountains between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers in the west, they are the second-highest group of mountains in the Carpathian Mountain range, reaching heights of over 2,500 meters. The average elevation in the Transylvanian Alps is 4,920–5,740 feet (1,500–1,750 meters), and the region includes three distinct groups of ranges.
The Transylvanian Alps are considerably smaller than the Alps, but they are classified as having an alpine landscape. Their high mountain character, combined with great accessibility, makes them a popular destination for tourists and scientists alike. The region is drained by the Mureș, Someș, Criș, and Olt rivers, as well as other tributaries of the Danube. The area includes the Transylvanian Plain and is almost entirely surrounded by the Eastern, Southern, and Romanian Western branches of the Carpathian Mountains.
The Transylvanian Plateau, which is part of the Transylvanian Alps, stands at a height of 300 to 500 meters (980–1,640 feet). The plateau is the core of historical Transylvania and roughly corresponds to nine counties of modern-day Romania. The city of Brașov, located within the Transylvanian Alps, is a significant tourist destination known for its mountain resorts. It serves as a central location for exploring Romania, with similar distances to several tourist attractions, including the Black Sea resorts and the monasteries in northern Moldavia.
The Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains, including the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sarmizegetusa Regia, are also located within the Transylvanian Alps. Other notable sites in the region include the Roman forts of Sarmizegetusa Ulpia Traiana, Porolissum, Apulum, Potaissa, and Drobeta, as well as the Salina Turda Salt Mine, which has been recognised as one of the "coolest underground places in the world" by Business Insider.
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The Alpine frontier
The Italian offensive of June 1917 aimed to conquer those mountain tops and threaten the valleys behind, thereby shortening the frontline and freeing up troops for the main direction of attack against Austria. Mount Zebio was one of the strongholds chosen as a retreat position by the Austro-Hungarian army in 1916 because of the advantages its dominance offered to defenders. The Italians did manage to tunnel into Mount Grappa, making it impregnable by 1918 with tunnels up to 5km long, hosting about 70 cannons.
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Mount Grappa
The First Battle of Mount Grappa took place from November 11, 1917, to December 23, 1917, as part of the Austro-Hungarian autumn offensive. The Italian Chief of the General Staff, General Luigi Cadorna, ordered the construction of fortified defences on the summit to create an impregnable fortress. Despite their advantage in troop numbers, the Italians were initially at a disadvantage in terms of strategic position, artillery, and equipment. However, the Austrians, with support from the German Army's Alpenkorps, were unable to capture the summit during this first battle, and the Italian front along the Piave River was stabilised.
The Second Battle of Mount Grappa was complementary to the wider Austrian summer offensive of 1918, which was the last offensive operation of the Austro-Hungarian Army in World War I. The third and final battle began on October 24, 1918, as part of the final Italian offensive of the war. Nine Italian divisions attacked the Austrian positions, and the Austrians responded by increasing their forces on the mountain to 15 divisions, committing all remaining reserves. However, the worn-down Austrian Army began a general retreat on October 28 when Czechoslovakia declared independence from Austria-Hungary, and the Italians ultimately achieved victory.
Today, Mount Grappa still bears the scars of war, with remnants of trenches, tunnels, and military roads visible. The mountain is now a site of remembrance, with the Military Sacrarium ("Ossario") holding the remains of 23,000 soldiers from both armies. The mountain also features a museum, walkways, and restored warpaths that attract tourists and hikers interested in exploring the area's rich history.
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The mountains of Tyrol
The complex political organisation of the empire, stemming from its origins as two separate kingdoms, resulted in unique challenges. The emperor, first crowned as king of both Austria and Hungary, navigated the dual monarchy with each kingdom retaining autonomy, its own parliament, prime ministers, and cabinet. This dynamic created inherent tensions and disagreements, further complicated by language barriers within the military. Despite these challenges, the Austro-Hungarian imperial army was well-equipped and professional.
The Tyrolean Front, as it was known, witnessed bitter fighting with both sides vying for elevated positions to gain the upper hand. The harsh conditions and limitations imposed by the mountainous terrain resulted in a unique form of warfare, with small patrols of experienced soldiers occupying summits. The long-term effects of the fighting in these mountains were significant, and the struggle in the snow and ice became a symbol of the conflict, immortalised in films, photographs, and literature.
The outcome of the fighting in the Tyrol mountains ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Following the Central Powers' defeat, South Tyrol was annexed by Italy, becoming part of the autonomous Italian province it remains today. The mountains of Tyrol, therefore, played a pivotal role in shaping the geography and political landscape of the region during and after World War I.
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Frequently asked questions
The Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied much of central Europe and included several mountain ranges, such as:
- The Transylvanian mountains in eastern Europe
- The Alps, where Mount Zebio was used as a stronghold by the Austro-Hungarian army
- The mountains in the Alpine frontier against Italy, where the "mountain war" took place
- The Grappa, where the Italians halted the Austro-Hungarians for a year
The Alpine frontier was a difficult terrain during World War I, characterised by frozen peaks and treacherous valleys. The Italians were constantly on the offensive but were at a disadvantage due to the strategic position of the Austro-Hungarians, who had retreated to dominant positions near mountain tops.
Mount Zebio was one of the strongholds chosen as a retreat position by the Austro-Hungarian army in 1916 due to its defensive advantages. It was the site of an Italian offensive in June 1917, with the aim of conquering the mountain tops and threatening the valleys behind.
The "mountain war" in the Alpine frontier resulted in a stalemate, with the Italians unable to break through the Austro-Hungarian defenses despite their constant offensive.
In addition to Mount Zebio, the Austro-Hungarians also utilized the mountains in the Tyrol region north of Italy as defensive positions during World War I.
