Leslie Massey
Between 1788 and 1868, the British penal system transported about 162,000 convicts from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. The first fleet of 11 convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent. Penal colonies were also established in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1803, Queensland in 1824, and Western Australia in 1850. The prisoners were transported in appalling conditions, and many did not survive the journey. Those who did often went on to work for the government or free settlers and, with good behaviour, could earn a ticket of leave, conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon.
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What You'll Learn
The First Fleet
Governor Arthur Phillip rejected Botany Bay as a site for the new colony, choosing instead Port Jackson, to the north, where the fleet arrived on 26 January 1788. This date is celebrated today as Australia Day and marks the arrival of the First Fleet and the raising of the Union flag at Sydney Cove. The new colony was named New South Wales and became the first British settlement in Australia. The colony of New South Wales was established as a penal colony, though it also included free settlers.
The arrival of the First Fleet changed forever the lives of the Eora people, the traditional Aboriginal owners of the land in the Sydney area. Violence between settlers and the Eora people started as soon as the colony was set up, with the Eora people, led by the warrior Pemulwuy, fighting the colonisers. This conflict was mainly over land and food. Captain Phillip was speared during a meeting with the Eora at Manly in 1790 but recovered and continued as the colony's first governor for two more years. He returned to England in 1792 with two Indigenous men: Bennelong, who later returned to Australia, and Yemmerrawannie, who died in England. Thousands of Eora people died as a result of European diseases like smallpox.
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Penal colonies
Between 1788 and 1868, the British penal system transported about 162,000 convicts from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. Penal colonies are settlements used to house criminals. Seeking to relieve overcrowding in British prisons, Britain chose Australia as the site of a penal colony in 1787, and the First Fleet of eleven convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent.
The establishment of the penal colony marked the beginning of British settlement in Australia. The colony also marked a time of dramatic impacts on the Indigenous peoples because of the dispossession of their land and resources. The British established a system of law and governance that often did not recognize the First Nations as holding any legal right to Australia. The British initially recognized that the Australian land was inhabited by the First Nations peoples, but they believed that the Indigenous peoples did not have a 'civilized' system of law or land ownership that the British were bound to respect. Therefore, Australia was also claimed to be 'empty land', or terra nullius in Latin, which gave them justification for taking First Nations' land.
The prisoners were transported on ships in appalling conditions, and many did not survive the journey. During the transportation period, nearly 2,000 convicts died, usually from illnesses such as cholera due to cramped and unhygienic conditions. The high mortality rate was exacerbated by a lack of supplies, leading to widespread hunger and starvation. The plan was to settle in Australia and begin creating large areas of agricultural production. However, skill shortages and a lack of livestock hindered the first attempts.
Convicts lived under very strict rules, and breaking these regulations could result in punishments such as whippings, the wearing of leg irons, or solitary confinement. Serious crimes could result in sentences to hard-labour prisons such as Port Arthur or Norfolk Island. The majority of convicts stayed in Australia after serving their sentences. Once free, they could own land, and some were even appointed to key positions in the colonial government.
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Prisoner conditions
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. The prisoners were transported on ships in appalling conditions, and many did not survive the journey. The ships were cramped and unhygienic, with inmates unable to stand up. The lack of sufficient supplies led to widespread hunger and starvation, and diseases such as cholera spread easily. The high mortality rate was made worse by the lack of skills and livestock required for agricultural production.
The prisoners were sentenced to hard labour, which included brick-making and timber cutting, in sweltering conditions with little food. They were subjected to harsh treatment and excessive punishment, including lashings and whippings. Those who did not behave were taken to areas like Tasmania and Norfolk Island for additional punishment and solitary confinement. The conditions were so extreme that even some government officials objected, including Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Bourke, who passed the 'Magistrates Act' to limit the imposition of lashes.
Convicts were also used as labourers to build the colony. They worked from sunrise to sunset, six days a week, and their sentences ranged from seven years to fourteen years or even life, despite generally committing low-grade crimes. The colonial administration viewed this as an opportunity for redemption, and well-behaved convicts could earn a ticket of leave, conditional pardon, or even an absolute pardon. Once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society.
The transportation of convicts to Australia was a result of overcrowding in British prisons and the end of transportation to American colonies following the American Revolution. It was also driven by the desire to pre-empt the French colonial empire from expanding into the region. The First Fleet of eleven convict ships left England in 1787 and arrived at Botany Bay, Sydney, New South Wales, on 20 January 1788, marking the founding of the first European settlement on the continent.
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Post-sentence life
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. The prisoners were transported in appalling conditions, and many did not survive the journey. The plan was to use the convicts as labourers to build the colony. However, the prisoners did not make for motivated workers, and many projects suffered delays and failures due to shoddy workmanship.
Once they had served their sentences, convicts were issued with a Certificate of Freedom and were free to settle in Australia or return home at their own expense. Many ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, being of convict descent also carried a social stigma, and for some later Australians, it instilled a sense of shame.
During the period of transportation, the British government sought to address the problem of overcrowded prisons and hulks—decommissioned Royal Navy vessels docked in rivers and ports across southern England that served as floating prisons. Transportation was also seen as a more humane alternative to capital punishment and a way to alleviate domestic social problems by increasing the colonial labour force. It was further believed that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies.
Transportation sentences were imposed for life or a set period of years, depending on the crime. Initially, transportation was employed as a punishment for major and petty crimes, but it later became the maximum penalty for several offences that were previously punishable by death. In the 1830s, more serious crimes such as rape and murder became transportable offences, but because they were also punishable by death, comparatively few convicts were transported for such crimes.
The transportation penal system reached its peak in the 1830s, after which the numbers dwindled. The system was officially ended in Britain in the 1850s, and the last convict ship to arrive in Western Australia was on 10 January 1868.
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Indigenous impact
Between 1788 and 1868, the British penal system transported about 162,000 convicts to various penal colonies in Australia. The first fleet of eleven convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent. Other penal colonies were later established in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1803, Queensland in 1824, and Western Australia in 1829. The last convict ship to Western Australia, the Hougoumont, arrived on 10 January 1868.
The impact of British colonisation on Indigenous Australians was profound and devastating. The colonisation process involved the dispossession and displacement of Indigenous peoples, who had inhabited the continent for at least 40,000 years and had a very long-standing claim to the land. Conflict with Indigenous peoples was immediate and escalated as the colonies expanded. The arrival of the convicts and the establishment of penal colonies contributed to this conflict and dispossession.
The British government's decision to transport convicts to Australia was driven by the need to relieve overcrowding in British prisons, particularly after the loss of American colonies as a destination for convict transportation following the American Revolution. This led to a sharp increase in the prison population and pressure to find an alternative solution. Australia, claimed by James Cook for Britain in 1770, presented an opportunity to establish a penal colony and pre-empt French colonial expansion in the region.
The use of convict labour in the Australian colonies had mixed results. While it provided a source of cheap or free labour for some, it also contributed to delays and failures due to shoddy workmanship and a lack of motivation among the convicts. Additionally, the introduction of a large number of male convicts disrupted gender dynamics and led to violence against women, especially Indigenous women.
The establishment of penal colonies and the influx of convicts had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians' way of life and their relationship with the land. The expansion of colonies and the land grab that ensued brought intensified conflict with Indigenous peoples, as their homelands were invaded and their property rights were annihilated. The process of colonisation resulted in the dispossession of perhaps one million Indigenous people and contributed to ongoing isolation and difficulties for Indigenous communities.
The colonisation of Australia and the establishment of penal colonies also had long-lasting impacts on the descendants of both the convicts and the Indigenous peoples. While the descendants of convicts have shaped Australian society, with some rising to prominent positions, the families and communities of Indigenous peoples continue to face challenges and struggle with the consequences of colonisation. The ongoing effects of colonisation on Indigenous Australians, including forcible removal of children, restrictions on movement, and barriers to accessing education and healthcare, highlight the intergenerational impact of British colonial policies.
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Frequently asked questions
The British sent prisoners to the Australian mainland and islands off its coast, including Tasmania and Norfolk Island.
Botany Bay, which is now known as Sydney Harbour, was the first penal colony in Australia. The First Fleet of 11 convict ships arrived on 18 January 1788.
The British government wanted to relieve overcrowding in prisons and hulks (old prison ships). Transportation was also considered a more humane alternative to execution.
The journey was often deadly, with convicts dying from illnesses like cholera due to cramped and unhygienic conditions. There was also a lack of sufficient supplies, leading to widespread hunger and starvation.
The prisoners were subjected to strict rules and harsh punishments, including whippings, solitary confinement, and hard labour. Some prisoners worked for the government or free settlers and could earn their freedom through good behaviour. Many convicts stayed in Australia after serving their sentences, becoming citizens in the settlements they helped build.
