Damon Mcknight
Australia is a multicultural country with a diverse range of ethnic groups and ancestries. The racial makeup of Australia has been influenced by its history of immigration, colonisation, and indigenous populations. The country's population is predominantly Caucasian due to its colonisation by Europeans, with about nine-tenths of European ancestry, and the largest proportion from the United Kingdom. Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population in 2019. The racial makeup includes a significant proportion of Asian Australians, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in recent years, contributing to the emergence of a Eurasian society within its major urban hubs. Additionally, Australia has a small but significant Aboriginal population, with a revival in the Aboriginal community in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of different ancestral backgrounds | Over 300 |
| Percentage of Australians with a parent born overseas | 48.2% |
| Percentage of Australians that are overseas-born migrants | 29.1% |
| Number of countries that Australian overseas-born migrants come from | Over 190 |
| Number of languages spoken by Australian overseas-born migrants at home | Over 400 |
| Number of Indigenous groups before British colonisation in 1788 | Over 500 |
| Current majority ethnic group | British (67.4%) |
| Other significant ethnic groups | Irish (8.7%), Italian (3.8%), German (3.7%) |
| Year that gold was discovered in Australia | Mid-1800s |
| Year that the Immigration Restriction Act was enacted | N/A |
| Year that Australia's racial makeup began to diversify due to increased migration | 1970s |
| Organisation that has reported on the lack of race and ethnicity data in Australia | Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |
| Australian government agency that no longer collects data on race | Australian Bureau of Statistics |
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What You'll Learn
Indigenous Australians
The Indigenous population prior to European settlement is estimated to have been between 300,000 and one million, with archaeological finds indicating a sustainable maximum population of around 750,000. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia, those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, have been dated to around 40,000 years ago, although Indigenous Australians have likely been living in Australia for upwards of 65,000 years.
Isolated for millennia by rising sea water after the last Ice Age, Aboriginal peoples developed a variety of regional cultures and languages, invented distinct artistic and religious traditions, and affected the continent's environment in numerous ways, including through hunting, fire-stick farming, and possibly the introduction of the dog. At the time of European colonisation, it is estimated that there were over 250 Aboriginal languages. Today, most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, which has also been influenced by Indigenous languages in its phonology and grammatical structure.
The arrival of British colonists in 1770 had a devastating impact on Indigenous Australians. A smallpox epidemic spread for three years after the arrival of Europeans, and massacres, armed conflicts, and competition over resources with European settlers contributed to the decline of the Aboriginal population. Numerous scholars have classified elements of the colonisation process as constituting genocide. From the 19th to the mid-20th century, government policy removed many mixed-heritage children from Aboriginal communities with the intention of assimilating them into white culture.
In recent decades, the Aboriginal population has increased significantly, jumping from 115,000 in 1971 to 550,000 in the 2011 census and 812,728 in the 2021 census, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia. Most of Australia's Indigenous population lives on the east coast, with almost 60% living in New South Wales and Queensland.
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European Australians
People of European descent have formed the majority of the population in Australia since the early 19th century. The country's colonisation by Europeans is a significant reason for the majority of its population being Caucasian. The first documented landing on Australia by a European was around March 1606. Captain James Cook claimed the east coast for Great Britain in 1770; the west coast was later settled by Britain as well.
The majority of European Australians are of British Isles ancestral origin, with English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh heritage. They are often referred to as Anglo-Celtic Australians. In 2021, 33% of the total population of Australia were English. Other significant ancestries include Italian, German, Greek, Dutch, European New Zealanders, Polish, Maltese, and Scandinavian.
The complex demographic textures in Australia at the beginning of the 21st century contrasted quite sharply with the homogeneity of the country during the first half of the 20th century. Although some nine-tenths of Australia's population is of European ancestry, more than one-fifth is foreign-born, and there is a small but growing Aboriginal population. Of those born overseas, about half were born in Europe, with the largest proportion coming from the United Kingdom.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics and Australian Census do not collect data based on race. Instead, they collect information on distinct ancestries, of which census respondents can select up to two. In the 2011 census, 495,757 respondents declared they were Aboriginal, 31,407 declared they were Torres Strait Islander, and a further 21,206 declared they were both. In 2022, of the 24,388 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander births registered, 45% were births where only the mother was of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin, and 32% were births where only the father was.
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Asian Australians
The history of Asian Australians dates back to the 19th century, with significant Chinese immigration during the Victorian gold rush in the 1850s and 1860s. However, prejudice and cultural misunderstandings led to conflicts and eventually, legislation aimed at curbing Chinese immigration. During World War II, Japanese and Taiwanese individuals were interned in towns like Tatura and Rushworth in Victoria. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Australian government expanded access to citizenship for non-Europeans, leading to an increase in Asian immigration.
Today, the term "Asian Australian" is widely accepted and used to refer to citizens or residents of Australia with Asian ancestry. Notable Asian Australians include Penny Wong, Australia's Foreign Minister, who has a Malaysian Chinese background, and Anh Do, an Australian author, actor, and comedian.
The 2025 Federal Election also saw a record number of Asian Australians elected into the Australian Parliament, reflecting the country's diverse demographics. Out of the fifteen Senators and Members of Parliament (MPs) with Asian heritage, five have a Chinese background, highlighting the growing representation of diverse backgrounds in Australian politics.
In summary, Asian Australians are an integral part of the country's cultural fabric, contributing to its diversity and richness. While historical tensions existed, particularly around immigration and cultural differences, Australia has made strides towards inclusion and representation, as evidenced by the recent election results.
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Immigration history
Australia's immigration history is complex and multifaceted, with various waves of migration shaping the country's racial makeup over time. Here is an overview of the key moments in Australia's immigration history:
Early Migration and British Colonization:
Before the arrival of European colonists, Australia was inhabited by Indigenous Australians, consisting of over 500 distinct indigenous groups, each with its own language, culture, and beliefs. In 1788, British colonization began, leading to the establishment of the first colony for exiled prisoners. This marked the beginning of a significant shift in the racial makeup of the country. Conflict, disease, and forced removals resulted in a substantial loss of Indigenous lives, and their territories were taken over by the incoming colonists.
The Gold Rush and Non-White Migration:
During the mid-1800s, the discovery of gold in Australia attracted migrants from various parts of the world, particularly during the gold rushes. This period saw a growth in non-white migration, which caused tension among the white Australian population. The arrival of these migrants, who were often willing to work for lower wages, was seen as a threat to the economic stability of white Australians.
The White Australia Policy:
In 1901, the Immigration Restriction Act, commonly known as the White Australia Policy, was enacted. This policy aimed to restrict non-white immigration and maintain Australia as a 'purely' white nation. It was driven by racist attitudes and the belief that non-whites posed a threat to the country's social, political, and moral standards. The policy specifically targeted Chinese immigrants and later extended to Japanese, South Asian, and South Pacific islander migrants. The dictation test, administered in a European language, was used to exclude non-white migrants. This policy remained in place, with some variations, until the mid-20th century.
Post-World War II Migration:
After World War II, Australia revived the 'populate or perish' idea, encouraging immigration to the country. While British migrants were initially favoured due to the White Australia Policy, the displacement of people across Europe led to a relaxation of the policy. Arthur Calwell, the immigration minister, allowed refugees from continental Europe, including the 'beautiful Balts,' to migrate to Australia. This marked the beginning of a gradual shift away from the White Australia Policy.
The End of the White Australia Policy:
In 1966, the Holt government passed laws that effectively dismantled the White Australia Policy with the introduction of the Migration Act 1966, increasing access to non-European migrants, including refugees fleeing the Vietnam War. This was followed by the Whitlam Labor government's definitive renunciation of the policy in 1973, establishing a policy of multiculturalism. The Racial Discrimination Act of 1975 further cemented the shift towards equality for all migrants, making the use of racial criteria for official purposes illegal.
Today, Australia's immigration policy celebrates multiculturalism and promotes residency among people of diverse ethnic backgrounds. The country now boasts cultural diversity, with over 200 languages spoken. While there have been some social challenges associated with this diversity, Australia has made significant progress in moving away from its racist past and embracing its multicultural identity.
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Racial demographics
Australia is home to a diverse range of cultures, with a history of immigration that has shaped its racial and ethnic makeup. The country's racial demographics have evolved over time, influenced by factors such as colonisation, immigration, and the revival of the Aboriginal community.
Indigenous Population:
The indigenous population of Australia consists of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. The Aboriginal population before European settlement is estimated to have been between 300,000 and one million people. In the 2011 census, 495,757 people identified as Aboriginal, and 31,407 as Torres Strait Islanders. The number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people has increased significantly, with a dramatic jump from 115,000 in 1971 to approximately 550,000 in the 2011 census. Today, most of Australia's Indigenous population lives on the east coast, particularly in New South Wales and Queensland.
European Ancestry:
European colonisation has had a significant impact on Australia's racial makeup. Between European colonisation in 1788 and the Second World War, most settlers and immigrants originated from the British Isles, particularly England and Ireland. In more recent times, immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe has increased. In the 2021 census, 57.2% of Australians identified with European ancestry, including 46% from North-West Europe and 11.2% from Southern and Eastern Europe. Overall, about nine-tenths of Australia's population has European ancestry, with strong Anglo-Celtic roots influencing the country's culture, language, and political systems.
Asian Population:
Australia's proximity to Asia and its economic development have attracted immigrants from Asian countries, particularly in recent decades. The increasing Asian Australian population has contributed to the emergence of a "Eurasian society" within Australia's urban hubs, blending European and Asian cultures. In the 2021 census, 17.4% of Australians identified with Asian ancestry, including 6.5% from Southern and Central Asia, 6.4% from North-East Asia, and 4.5% from South-East Asia.
Other Ethnic Groups:
Australia's racial demographics also include smaller proportions of other ethnic groups. The 2021 census reported 3.2% of the population with North African and Middle Eastern ancestry, 1.4% with ancestries from the Americas, and 1.3% as Sub-Saharan African. Additionally, Australia is home to a diverse range of smaller immigrant groups, including New Zealanders, Chinese, and Italians, contributing to the country's multicultural identity.
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Frequently asked questions
Australia is made up of more than 270 ethnic groups. Australians of European descent are the majority in Australia, making up 57.2% of the population (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European).
The second largest racial group is Asian Australians, who make up 17.4% of the population. This includes 6.5% South and Central Asian, 6.4% Northeast Asian, and 4.5% Southeast Asian.
The number of Aboriginal Australians has increased dramatically in the last few decades, jumping from 115,000 in 1971 to 495,757 in the 2011 census. In 2022, there were 24,388 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander births registered.
Australia has a history of colonisation by Europeans, which is a significant reason for the majority of its population being Caucasian. Australia was claimed for Britain by Captain James Cook in 1770, and large-scale immigration occurred following gold rushes in the 1850s and after the World Wars.
Australia has observed the emergence of a "Eurasian society" within its major urban hubs, blending European and Asian cultures within an Australian context. Australian culture is also influenced by Aboriginal culture, traditions brought by immigration from around the world, and American culture.
