Lyla Lindsey
Austria and Prussia were the two most powerful kingdoms in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. They were rivals, but they also shared some similarities. Both were governed by enlightened monarchs and were fairly tolerant according to the standards of the time. They also both had territories outside the empire and sought to expand there. The rivalry between the two kingdoms was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political aspects. This rivalry, known as German dualism, culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
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What You'll Learn
Population and religion
Prussia and Austria have historically been rivals, with Prussia even invading and occupying the Austrian province of Silesia in 1740, which marked the onset of the War of Austrian Succession. This rivalry continued until the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, after which Prussia and Austria dominated German affairs, with each becoming so powerful that only the other could keep it in check.
The Teutonic Order, a group of German crusaders, conquered the area that is now northern Poland and the Baltic countries in the 13th century. They did so to convert the locals to Christianity. The Teutonic Order came into conflict with Poland and Lithuania and was defeated several times, reducing their territory. Eventually, several leading knights converted to Protestantism and reorganized the territory as a duchy under the King of Poland, the Duchy of Prussia.
The Prussian countryside was subdued, castles were built for the German nobility, and many German peasants were settled there to farm the land. By the middle of the 14th century, the majority of Prussia's inhabitants were German-speaking, though the Old Prussian language did not die out until the 17th century. By the 17th century, the indigenous population was thoroughly assimilated.
Prussia was ruled by Frederick II (1740-1786), also known as Frederick the Great and "the philosopher king", who personified the Enlightenment and its ideal of peace. Frederick raised an army of 80,000 men, equivalent to 4% of the population, and geared the whole organization of the state towards the military.
Austria, on the other hand, was ruled by the enormously powerful and long-lasting Habsburg Dynasty out of Vienna. The Habsburgs were staunch Catholics who, since the Reformation, had allied themselves with the bourbon monarchies of Western Europe in their wars against Protestants. This long-standing tradition of Catholic, authoritarian rule made the Austro-Hungarian Empire powerful, but their inability to accept new ideas like ethnic nationalism weakened their rule.
After the death of the Habsburg emperor Charles VI in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa succeeded him as ruler of the Habsburg lands. However, she was not a candidate for the title of Holy Roman Emperor, which had never been held by a woman. It was planned that her husband, Francis Stephen, would be elected Holy Roman Emperor. Maria Theresa is remembered for her sweeping internal reforms in religion, education, and public health. She recruited Gerard van Swieten, who founded the Vienna General Hospital and revamped Austria's educational system.
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Territorial conflicts
Prussia and Austria were the two most powerful kingdoms in the German Confederation, which was formed in 1815. Both kingdoms recognised full integration as a threat to their dominance and the rivalry between them continued to grow until it culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which led to the dissolution of the German Confederation.
The rivalry between the two kingdoms was characterised by major territorial conflicts, with Prussia and Austria both vying for dominance over the smaller German states. Prussia, which had a highly effective army, was joined by Bavaria and Saxony in the empire, as well as by France and Spain. Despite being outnumbered by Austria's forces, Prussia's armies proved to be the best-led. The Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) confirmed the Prussian conquest of Silesia, a province in the kingdom of Bohemia and thus part of the Habsburg monarchy, which Prussia had long desired for its populousness, mineral resources, and advanced economy.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), including the Silesian Wars, was another conflict driven by territorial ambitions. It was started by the new Prussian king, Frederick II, who invaded Austrian-controlled Silesia. During the succeeding Seven Years' War (1756-63), Prussian forces occupied Saxony, which had allied itself with Austria. In the Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763, Prussia kept Silesia but could not hold on to Saxony.
The rivalry between Prussia and Austria was an important element of the German question in the 19th century, with both seeking to expand their territories and influence among the smaller German states. After 1866, the new German nation-state was dominated by Prussia, and Austria (or Austria-Hungary, since 1867) no longer struggled for hegemony in Germany.
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Military power
Prussia and Austria were the most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. The rivalry between the two states was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political aspects.
Prussia and Austria's rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which Prussia won. There are several reasons why Prussia was victorious. Firstly, Prussia's conscript service was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army, where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after induction. This meant that the Prussian army was better trained and disciplined than the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. The Prussian army was also locally based and organised into military districts, each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units.
The Prussian army was also able to adapt and implement new military tactics. Prussian officers travelled to the US to observe the American Civil War, recording troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack. This allowed Prussia to equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and new Krupp breech-loading artillery. In contrast, the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian crisis, and while Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery), the Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions.
The Prussian army was also willing to adapt its tactics. For example, under the leadership of Moltke, the Prussian army was successful against the Austrians at Königgrätz and against the French in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Moltke's view that directives should state intentions rather than detailed orders later became a fundamental of all German military theory.
Prussia's military power allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then force the Catholic states into a federal union in 1871, forming the German Empire. This empire, with Prussia at its head, became one of the most influential world powers.
However, it is worth noting that the Prussian army was not always successful. For example, during the Thirty Years' War, the Prussian army was relatively weak compared to the Austrian army. Additionally, the Prussian army faced opposition from within, with some officers feeling that reforms would erode the privileges of the aristocratic officer corps.
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Leadership
Prussia and Austria have a long history of rivalry and conflict, with Prussia challenging Austria's hegemony within the German Confederation. Prussia's victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 marked a significant shift in power, leading to the exclusion of Austrian leadership and the rise of Prussian dominance over the German states.
Austria, under the Habsburg family, had traditionally held the leadership position among the German states. However, Prussia, which became part of the empire along with Bavaria and Saxony, increasingly contested Austrian supremacy. The rivalry between the two powers was not just about territorial expansion but also involved constitutional struggles within the empire, with territorial states opposing imperial authority.
The conflict between Prussia and Austria was often driven by the ambitions of their respective leaders. For example, in 1740, the new Prussian king, Frederick II, initiated a conflict over the Austrian throne by attacking Silesia, a province within the Habsburg monarchy. This led to the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), which Prussia won, solidifying its control over Silesia.
Prussia's military prowess and well-led armies played a crucial role in its rise to power. During the War of the Austrian Succession, Prussia's armies proved to be superior despite being greatly outnumbered by Austrian forces. This military advantage, combined with modernised army discipline, was again evident in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866, when Prussia emerged victorious over Austria and its allies.
The Prussian leader, Otto von Bismarck, played a pivotal role in Prussia's challenge for leadership. Bismarck formed strategic alliances, such as the one with Italy, which diverted Austrian forces and contributed to Prussia's success. Prussia's victory in 1866 resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and the formation of the North German Confederation, solidifying Prussia's hegemony and excluding Austria from leadership within Germany.
In summary, the rivalry and conflicts between Prussia and Austria were driven by their competing ambitions for leadership and hegemony within the German states. Prussia's military strength, strategic leadership, and careful preparation ultimately led to its victory over Austria in 1866, significantly reshaping the balance of power in the region.
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International alliances
Prussia's King Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great, initiated the First Silesian War in 1740 by invading Austrian-controlled Silesia, a province within the kingdom of Bohemia and part of the Habsburg monarchy. This act of aggression was driven by Prussia's desire for the region's populousness, mineral resources, and advanced economy. Prussia's military prowess, despite being outnumbered by Austrian forces, was a key factor in its success. The Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) confirmed Prussia's conquest of Silesia, solidifying its position.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), which included the Silesian Wars, witnessed shifting alliances. Initially, Austria received aid from a Hungarian army and financial support from England. However, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Prussia occupied Saxony, which had allied itself with Austria. This period also saw England switch its support from Austria to Prussia, while France allied itself with Austria, demonstrating the complex and dynamic nature of international alliances.
The rivalry between Prussia and Austria culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which led to the dissolution of the German Confederation. Despite their competition, the two powers did cooperate at times, notably during the Napoleonic Wars, and jointly dominated the German Confederation during periods of cooperation (1815-1848 and 1851-1859). They also fought alongside each other against Denmark in the Second Schleswig War in 1864.
After the conflict in 1866, Prussia dominated the new German nation-state, and Austria-Hungary no longer vied for hegemony in Germany. The two nations eventually became close allies, as evidenced by the Zweibund of 1879. They served as the main Central Powers during World War I (1914-1918). The aftermath of the war brought about the fall of Austria-Hungary, while Germany transitioned into a republic, marking a significant shift in the international alliances that had defined the previous centuries.
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Frequently asked questions
Prussia and Austria were the two most powerful German kingdoms in the 18th and 19th centuries. They were rivals, but they also shared some similarities. Both were governed by enlightened monarchs, tolerated different religions, and were multi-ethnic and multilingual. Prussia was more powerful than Austria due to its efficient governance and strong military.
As mentioned above, both Prussia and Austria were governed by enlightened monarchs who believed in governing for the people but not by the people. Both kingdoms were multi-ethnic and multilingual, with sizable territories to the east of the empire.
Prussia and Austria had a rivalry, known as "the German dualism," due to their struggle for supremacy among smaller German states. Prussia was more powerful because of its efficient governance and strong military.
Yes, Prussia and Austria engaged in several wars, including the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War. The rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, after which Prussia dominated the new German nation-state.
