Angola's Historical Events: A Brief Overview

Angola's history is marked by colonial conquest, independence, and civil war. The Portuguese arrived in the region in the late 15th century, and their interest in Angola quickly turned to the slave trade. By the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves for the Americas. Portugal's control over the region continued into the 20th century, despite resistance from various kingdoms and rebellions. The post-World War II decolonization of Africa led to the emergence of three Angolan independence movements, resulting in a military coup in Portugal and the Alvor Accords, which promised to hand power to a coalition of these movements. However, ideological clashes led to armed conflict, with the Eastern Bloc-backed Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) ultimately taking power. Angola's independence in 1975 sparked a civil war, with various nationalist forces vying for control. The country became a Cold War battleground, with the United States and the Soviet Union providing support to opposing factions. The civil war ended in the MPLA remaining as the official government, but the insurgency continued until the death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi in 2002.

Angola's involvement in the Cold War

The MPLA was a Marxist organisation based in the capital, Luanda, and was led by Agostinho Neto. It was supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba, and had long-established relations with Fidel Castro's Cuba. The UNITA, on the other hand, was led by Jonas Savimbi and supported by the US, South Africa, and the UK. It was an offshoot of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was based in northern Angola and led by Holden Roberto. The FNLA was supported by the US and China, and had strong ties to Mobutu Sese Seko, the leader of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo).

The civil war began in 1975, shortly after Angola gained independence from Portugal. The MPLA took control of Luanda and established a de facto government, but the fighting intensified in the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in 1988, in which nearly 10,000 soldiers died. A ceasefire was held until 1992, when UN-supervised elections took place. The MPLA won, but Savimbi disputed the results and the fighting resumed. The war finally ended in 2002, when Savimbi was killed by government troops.

The Angolan Civil War is widely considered a Cold War proxy conflict, with the Soviet Union and the US, along with their respective allies Cuba and South Africa, assisting the opposing factions. The conflict was closely intertwined with other regional conflicts, including the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo and the South African Border War.

The Angolan Civil War

The Roots of the Conflict

The roots of the conflict can be traced back to the anti-colonial movements of the 1950s. The MPLA was primarily an urban-based movement in Luanda and its surrounding area, largely composed of Mbundu people. On the other hand, the other two major anti-colonial movements, the FNLA and UNITA, were rural groups. The FNLA primarily consisted of Bakongo people from Northern Angola, while UNITA, an offshoot of the FNLA, was mainly composed of Ovimbundu people, Angola's largest ethnic group, from the Bié Plateau.

The Cold War Proxy Conflict

The Course of the War

The 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting: from 1975 to 1991, 1992 to 1994, and from 1998 to 2002, with fragile periods of peace in between. The MPLA ultimately achieved victory in 2002, but at a devastating cost. Between 500,000 and 800,000 people had died, over one million had been internally displaced, and Angola's infrastructure, public administration, economy, and religious institutions were severely damaged.

The role of the US in Angola

The United States has played a significant role in Angola's history, especially during the country's struggle for independence and the subsequent civil war. Here is a detailed account of the role of the US in Angola:

US Involvement in Angola's Independence and Civil War

The US became involved in Angola during the country's fight for independence from Portugal in the mid-1970s. Three main military movements were vying for power in Angola: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). The MPLA, a Marxist organisation, received backing from the Soviet Union and Cuba. Meanwhile, the US supported the FNLA, which had strong ties to Mobutu Sese Seko, a US ally in neighbouring Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). The US supplied aid, training, and military assistance to the FNLA.

Cold War Competition

The situation in Angola escalated into a Cold War battleground as the US and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies, backed opposing factions. The conflict in Angola strained relations between the two superpowers. The US viewed Cuban involvement in Angola as a proxy for Soviet influence, undermining the period of détente between the US and the Soviet Union.

US-South African Relations

As the civil war in Angola intensified, UNITA, with US support, sought military assistance from the Apartheid government in South Africa. This put the US in a precarious position, as it had to balance its support for UNITA with its opposition to the Apartheid regime. When South Africa's involvement became public, it faced domestic resistance to its role in the Angolan conflict, and Congress rejected President Gerald Ford's request for additional funding for the operation.

Recognition of Angolan Independence

Portugal officially granted Angola independence on November 11, 1975, but the US did not immediately recognise the new government. The US continued to have concerns about the presence of Cuban troops in Angola and their involvement in regional conflicts. It was only after Angola's first multiparty elections in 1992 and a peace agreement with UNITA that the US formally recognised the Angolan government in 1993 during the Clinton administration.

Bilateral Relations and Cooperation

Since establishing diplomatic relations in 1993, the US and Angola have developed a strategic partnership with regular senior-level engagements. The US has increased its investment and cooperation with Angola in various sectors, including economic development, trade, security, and health. The US has also supported Angola's efforts to reduce debt vulnerabilities, combat corruption, enhance governance, and protect human rights. Additionally, the US has been a key partner in Angola's energy sector, promoting energy security and transition.

Angola's independence from Portugal

Portugal's colonial presence in Angola began in the 15th century, with the Portuguese gradually taking control of the coastal areas through a series of treaties and wars. By the 19th century, Angola had become the largest source of slaves for the Americas.

In the 20th century, Portugal continued to treat its African colonies as overseas provinces, even as other colonial powers were granting their colonies independence. This led to the emergence of three Angolan independence movements: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).

The Angolan War of Independence was fought between these nationalist forces and Portugal from 1961 to 1974. It began as an uprising against the Portuguese imposition of forced cultivation of cotton. As the resistance spread, multiple factions developed and struggled for control of Angola. The war was fought as a guerrilla conflict by the Angolans, with the Portuguese army and security forces conducting a counter-insurgency campaign.

The war ended when a peaceful coup in Lisbon in April 1974 overthrew Portugal's dictatorship. The new regime agreed to grant independence to its African colonies without delay. The Alvor Agreement was signed in January 1975 by the three nationalist movements and the Portuguese government, providing for a three-way power-sharing government. However, ideological clashes led to an armed conflict between the movements, with the Eastern Bloc-backed MPLA eventually taking power when the Portuguese abandoned Luanda in November 1975. Angola was formally granted independence on November 11, 1975, becoming the People's Republic of Angola.

The transition to independence was marked by civil war as the rival nationalist forces and their respective allies vied for control of the newly independent state. The MPLA, in control of the capital, declared itself the government and was recognised by many African countries. UNITA and the FNLA set up a rival government in Huambo with the support of South African forces. Cuba sent troops to defend the MPLA, pushing out the South Africans and gaining control of all the provincial capitals. The civil war continued until 1992, when Angola held its first multiparty elections.

The slave trade in Angola

The Portuguese Empire conquered the Mbundu people of Angola, incorporating their economy into the slave trade. In 1612, Angola exported slaves at a rate of 10,000 per year. To expand their access to Angolan slaves, the Portuguese built a new port in Benguela in 1616. From 1617 to 1621, during the governorship of Luís Mendes de Vasconcellos, up to 50,000 Angolans were enslaved and shipped to the Americas. The Vergulde Valck, Dutch slave traders, bought 675 of the 1,000 slaves sold in Angola in 1660.

During the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1750s, the Portuguese sold 5,000 to 10,000 slaves annually, devastating the Mbundu economy and population. The Portuguese gave guns to Imbangala soldiers in return for slaves, and with superior weapons, the Imbangala captured and sold natives on a much larger scale.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Angola was the principal source of slaves for the Atlantic slave trade. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves for the Americas. It is known that more than 5 million slaves came from Angola, and a quarter of the approximately 400,000 Africans sent to North America were colonized by the Portuguese, who dominated the slave trade for decades. By some estimates, 45% of all enslaved Africans sent to the Americas left from ports in Angola.

Portuguese colonialism enforced the expansion of slavery in the region of Benguela. The Portuguese crown and agents paired the height of the transatlantic slave trade with the growth of their control of the region, forcing the reconfiguration of local slavery. Slavery evolved from relations of dependency, where mostly outsider captives from enemy states were at the bottom of local societies, to a process of commodification, individual kidnapping, and trickery. This meant that, over time, insiders and people from neighbouring colonial settlements, vassal chiefdoms, and autonomous states became more vulnerable to captivity, re-enslavement, and deportation.

Slave trafficking was abolished in 1836 by the Portuguese authorities. However, slavery within Portugal's overseas possessions was not abolished until 1854, when the Portuguese government gradually banned slavery in their colonies by declaring all existing slaves free after a 20-year transition period. By 1878, all slaves had transitioned to become free.

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