The Soviet Withdrawal: Afghanistan's Enduring Conflict And Cold War Legacy

The Soviet-Afghan War was a protracted armed conflict fought in the Soviet-controlled Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) from 1979 to 1989. The war was a major conflict of the Cold War as it saw extensive fighting between the DRA, the Soviet Union and allied paramilitary groups against the Afghan mujahideen and their allied foreign fighters. The war resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000,000 Afghans, while millions more fled from the country as refugees.

The war began after the Soviets, under the command of Leonid Brezhnev, launched an invasion of Afghanistan to support the local pro-Soviet government that had been installed during Operation Storm-333. The Soviet government had initially planned to swiftly secure Afghanistan's towns and road networks, stabilize the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government, and withdraw all of their military forces in a span of six months to one year. However, they were met with fierce resistance from Afghan guerrillas and experienced great operational difficulties on the rugged mountainous terrain. By the mid-1980s, the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan had increased to approximately 115,000 troops and fighting across the country intensified; the complication of the war effort gradually inflicted a high cost on the Soviet Union as military, economic, and political resources became increasingly exhausted.

In April 1988, after years of stalemate, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed a peace accord with Afghanistan. In February 1989, the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan, where civil war continued until the Taliban’s seizure of power in the late 1990s.

The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan

The invasion was carried out by the Soviet 40th Army, which entered Afghanistan from the north. The Soviets first organised a massive military airlift into Kabul, involving an estimated 280 transport aircraft and three divisions of almost 8,500 men each. Within a few days, the Soviets had secured Kabul, deploying a special assault unit against the presidential palace, killing President Hafizullah Amin. Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction of the Marxist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), was installed as Afghanistan's new head of government.

The invasion was met with fierce resistance from Muslim guerrilla fighters known as the Mujahideen, who saw the atheist Soviets as a defilement of Islam and their traditional culture. The Mujahideen employed guerrilla tactics, attacking and raiding quickly before disappearing into the mountains. They were armed with weapons from the US, China, Pakistan, and Iran, and were trained by the CIA.

The war was a major conflict of the Cold War, resulting in the deaths of approximately 3,000,000 Afghans and 14,500 Soviet soldiers. It also caused millions of Afghans to flee the country as refugees. The conflict ended in February 1989, when the Soviet Union began withdrawing its troops. The last Soviet soldier crossed back into the USSR on the 15th of February 1989.

The US's response to the invasion

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was met with a strong reaction from the US government, led by President Jimmy Carter. Here is a detailed account of the US response to the Soviet invasion:

Imposing Economic Sanctions

President Carter imposed economic sanctions on the Soviet Union, including an embargo on the sale of grain to the Soviets. The US hoped that this would encourage the Soviet Union to leave Afghanistan as they were dependent on grain imports from America.

Boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympics

Carter also ordered a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow, with around 60 countries joining the US in refusing to attend the games. This was a controversial move as athletes who had trained for years felt they were being used as political pawns.

Aiding the Afghan Opposition

The US started arming and providing funds to the Afghan opposition, known as the Mujahideen. The CIA funnelled Soviet-made weapons and money to the rebels through Pakistan, in an operation known as "Operation Cyclone". The Mujahideen were seen as freedom fighters in the West, and the US continued to arm them even during the Reagan administration.

Forming Alliances

The US formed alliances with China and Israel to support the Afghan rebels who opposed the Soviet invasion and the Afghan communist government.

Recalling the US Ambassador

Carter recalled the US ambassador to the Soviet Union, Thomas J. Watson Jr., ostensibly for "consultation". This move was intended to send a strong message to the Soviets that their military intervention in Afghanistan was unacceptable.

Increasing Defence Spending

Carter increased US defence spending by 5% and ordered the military to come up with plans for surviving and winning a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.

Nullifying the SALT-II Treaty

Carter asked the Senate to postpone action on the SALT-II nuclear weapons treaty, indicating that US-Soviet relations had been severely damaged by the Soviet invasion. The US Senate later refused to ratify the treaty.

Diplomatic Actions

The US sharply criticised the Soviet move into Afghanistan, devising measures to compel Moscow to withdraw. President Carter wrote a strongly-worded letter to Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, denouncing the invasion. During his State of the Union address, Carter announced his doctrine to protect Middle Eastern oil supplies from Soviet power.

The Soviet Union's occupation of Afghanistan

The invasion was met with fierce resistance from Afghan guerrillas, who launched a jihad, or "holy war", against the foreign atheists. The mujahideen, or "holy warriors", were armed by the United States, Britain, China, and several Muslim nations. The mujahideen waged guerrilla warfare in small groups across the 80% of the country that was not subject to uncontested Soviet control.

The Soviet government had initially planned to swiftly secure Afghanistan's towns and road networks, stabilize the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government, and withdraw all of their military forces within six months to a year. However, they faced great operational difficulties on the rugged mountainous terrain and experienced fierce resistance from the Afghan guerrillas. By the mid-1980s, the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan had increased to approximately 115,000 troops, and fighting across the country intensified. The war effort gradually inflicted a high cost on the Soviet Union as military, economic, and political resources became increasingly exhausted.

In April 1988, after years of stalemate, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed a peace accord with Afghanistan. In February 1989, the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan, bringing an end to the Soviet occupation. However, civil war continued in Afghanistan until the Taliban seized power in the late 1990s.

The Geneva Accords

• A bilateral agreement between the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the Republic of Afghanistan on the principles of mutual relations, specifically focusing on non-interference and non-intervention in each other's affairs. This agreement also included provisions to end support for rebellious activities against each other and to refrain from making agreements with other states that could lead to intervention in the internal or external affairs of either country.
• A declaration on international guarantees, signed by the Soviet Union and the United States, committing both superpowers to non-interference and non-intervention in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• A bilateral agreement between Pakistan and Afghanistan on the voluntary return of Afghan refugees, with a target of 18 months for completion.
• An agreement on the interrelationships for the settlement of the situation relating to Afghanistan, signed by Pakistan and Afghanistan, and witnessed by the Soviet Union and the United States. This agreement included provisions for the timetable of the Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, with a completion date of February 15, 1989.

The Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan

In April 1988, Gorbachev signed the Geneva Accords, an agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the USSR and the US acting as guarantors. The agreement stipulated provisions for the withdrawal of Soviet forces and mutual non-interference between Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Soviet military withdrawal began on 15 May 1988, under the leadership of General Valentin Varennikov, and was completed on 15 February 1989.

The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 had been an attempt to subdue the Afghan civil war and maintain a friendly and socialist government on its border. The invasion was met with fierce resistance from Afghan guerrillas and resulted in a stalemate that lasted for years. The war was costly for the Soviet Union, both in terms of military and economic resources, and it caused significant discord within the Communist Party and Soviet society.

The Geneva Accords were signed after lengthy negotiations and amid pressure from the international community, including the United Nations and the United States, which had placed economic sanctions on the USSR. The agreement allowed Gorbachev to withdraw while retaining some prestige in the eyes of third-world allies.

The Soviet Union continued to support the Afghan government led by President Mohammad Najibullah even after the withdrawal. However, this aid was abruptly halted following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, leading to the collapse of Najibullah's government and triggering the Second Afghan Civil War.

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