The Austrian Succession: A Complex Political Legacy

The War of the Austrian Succession was a conflict that took place from 16 December 1740 to 18 October 1748, primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The war was caused by the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the Austrian Habsburg crown after her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in 1740. Maria Theresa's succession was challenged by France, Prussia, Bavaria and Spain, who sought to exploit the succession struggle to acquire Habsburg possessions for themselves and diminish Austrian power. Maria Theresa was supported by Britain, the United Provinces and Russia. The war established Prussia as a regional hegemon for years to come, altering the balance of power in Europe.

The death of Emperor Charles VI

Emperor Charles VI died on 20 October 1740, after a hunting trip across the Hungarian border. He fell ill at the Favorita Palace in Vienna and died in the Hofburg. Voltaire wrote in his Memoirs that the Emperor's death was caused by consuming a meal of death cap mushrooms.

Charles VI was the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1711 until his death in 1740. He succeeded his elder brother, Joseph I, and was the last male Habsburg heir in the direct line. Charles had three daughters but no surviving sons. His lack of a male heir, coupled with the fact that Habsburg possessions were subject to Salic law, barring women from inheriting in their own right, meant that the lands would be divided upon his death.

In anticipation of this, Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, abolishing male-only succession in all Habsburg realms and declaring their lands indivisible. However, this only served to undermine the chances of a smooth succession, as Charles spent the rest of his reign seeking to ensure enforcement of the sanction from other European powers.

At the time of his death, the Habsburg lands were saturated in debt, and desertion was rife in Austria's sporadic army. The death of Charles VI ultimately sparked the War of the Austrian Succession, as his successor, Maria Theresa, was forced to resort to arms to defend her inheritance from a coalition of Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain, Saxony, and Poland.

The right of Maria Theresa to inherit the Habsburg lands

Maria Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg dominions was contested primarily by Frederick II of Prussia, who invaded and occupied the rich Habsburg province of Silesia in 1740. This act of aggression suggested that the Habsburg dominions were incapable of defending themselves, prompting other countries to enter the fray. The conflict soon widened to include other participants, such as France, Spain, Bavaria, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia.

The war was fought across multiple theatres, including Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. It was marked by shifting alliances and complex diplomatic manoeuvring. Maria Theresa's main foreign support came from the British Empire, which feared the potential hegemony of France in Europe. The conflict in India between Britain and France during the war resulted in the First Carnatic War.

The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which confirmed Maria Theresa as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary. However, the treaty failed to resolve underlying tensions, and many of the signatories were unhappy with its terms. The war had a significant impact on the balance of power in Europe, establishing Prussia as a regional hegemon and leading to the realignment of alliances known as the Diplomatic Revolution.

The invasion of Silesia

The First Silesian War (1740-1742) ended with a Prussian victory, resulting in the cession of most of Silesia to Prussia in the Treaty of Breslau. This outcome set the stage for the Second Silesian War (1744-1745), which began when Frederick once again invaded Bohemia. The Second Silesian War concluded with the Treaty of Dresden, in which Austria was forced to adhere to the terms of the Treaty of Breslau, ceding Silesia to Prussia.

The Prussian acquisition of Silesia had far-reaching consequences. It established Prussia as a regional hegemon and altered the balance of power in Europe. It also damaged the prestige of the House of Habsburg and led to a rivalry between Austria and Prussia that would define German politics for the next century.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The treaty was negotiated largely by Britain and France, with the other powers following their lead. It was marked by the mutual restitution of conquests, including the fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, to France; Madras in India, to England; and the barrier towns to the Dutch. The treaty guaranteed the right of Maria Theresa to the Austrian lands, but the Habsburgs were weakened by the guarantee to Prussia of its conquest of Silesia. The treaty also confirmed the right of succession of the House of Hanover in Great Britain and Hanover.

The treaty failed to resolve the issues that caused the war, and most of the signatories were unhappy with the terms. Maria Theresa resented Austria's exclusion from the talks and blamed Britain for forcing her to make concessions. Britain, meanwhile, felt they had received little benefit for the financial subsidies paid to Austria. The Spanish considered their gains in Italy inadequate, and Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia felt he had been promised the Duchy of Parma. The treaty also failed to settle the commercial and colonial rivalries between Britain and France in North America, particularly in the regions along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

The impact on Britain and France

The War of the Austrian Succession had a significant impact on Britain and France, shaping their colonial ambitions and changing their perceptions of each other.

Impact on Britain

Britain's primary war aim was to prevent France from overrunning the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) and to protect its Hanoverian territory, as King George II of Britain was also Elector of Hanover. The British Army's establishment was rapidly increased, and new regiments were raised. In 1742, a force of 16,000 men was sent to Flanders in support of the Austrians.

The British proved their worth as soldiers, and their fighting qualities were demonstrated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, where King George II led his troops in battle for the final time. However, the British suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of the French at Fontenoy in 1745, losing 7,500 men. This defeat led to the withdrawal of British troops from the continent to deal with the Jacobite Rebellion at home, severely weakening the Allies in Flanders.

The war also impacted Britain's colonial ambitions. In India, the rivalry between Britain and France in the Austrian War of Succession resulted in the First Carnatic War. The French seized the British East India Company's trading base of Madras, while the British unsuccessfully besieged Pondicherry. In North America, known as King George's War, a combined British-New England expedition captured Louisbourg, but they were unable to conquer New France.

Impact on France

The war proved to be a disaster for France, with the country achieving minimal gains despite vast expenditures. By early 1748, France held most of the Austrian Netherlands but was close to bankruptcy due to the cost of the war and a crippling British naval blockade. The French maritime trade was eventually ruined by the Royal Navy.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the war, did little to satisfy France's ambitions. They were forced to leave the Austrian Netherlands and return Madras in exchange for Louisbourg. The French nobility and populace were dismayed by the lack of tangible benefits, especially considering the enormous subsidies paid to Austria.

The war also changed France's perception of Britain. The British naval blockade highlighted the superiority of the British navy, making it difficult for the French to provide significant supplies and support to their colonies. This realisation led to a shift in French military strategy, which now focused on potential threats on its eastern and northern borders, requiring a strong land army.

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