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On March 12, 1938, German troops crossed the border into Austria, marking the beginning of the Anschluss—the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany. The Anschluss was the first act of territorial aggression by Nazi Germany, and it was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. The idea of a union between the two countries was not new, and it gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. Many Austrians considered themselves ethnically German, and the union was seen as a way to restore a form of the empire.
Hitler, himself an Austrian, had expressed his desire for a union between the two countries in his earliest writings and speeches. He saw it as his mission to unite all Germans in a Nazi German empire and acquire Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe. In 1938, he colluded with Austrian Nazis to orchestrate the annexation of Austria.
On February 12, 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg met with Hitler and was forced to accept demands that undermined Austrian sovereignty. In an attempt to assert Austrian independence, Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite to be held on March 13, 1938. Infuriated, Hitler threatened an invasion and demanded Schuschnigg's resignation. On March 11, Schuschnigg cancelled the plebiscite and resigned. The next day, German troops crossed the border and were greeted by cheering Austrians. On March 13, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Arthur Seyss-Inquart signed the Reunification of Austria with Germany law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany.
The Anschluss was not inevitable, but certain historical factors and events facilitated the process. The international community did not intervene to stop the annexation, and this act of appeasement allowed Hitler to continue his expansionary policies unchecked.
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Hitler's aggressive foreign policy and violation of international treaties
Hitler's foreign policy was driven by his goal of establishing a new racial order in Europe dominated by the German "master race". This policy was aggressive and aimed to unite all German-speaking people, check the spread of communism, expand to the east for Lebensraum, revive the military and national pride, and strengthen existing alliances for expansion.
Hitler justified his aggressive foreign policy with the unfair treatment Germany had received in the Paris Peace Conference, arguing that a 'diktat' (meaning dictated peace) had been imposed on their already weakened nation. He believed that the Treaty of Versailles was unjust, as ethnic German speakers in the Sudetenland, the Polish corridor, and other regions were not allowed to be united with the German motherland.
Hitler's foreign policy was also shaped by his desire to acquire Lebensraum ("living space") in Eastern Europe, which he recognised would require war. He began preparing for this as soon as he came to power, undoing the military restrictions and reversing the territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland, taking control of territories with German-speaking populations. This action violated the Treaty of Versailles, which restricted the size of the German military and prohibited German troops from being stationed in the Rhineland.
Annexation of Austria (Anschluss)
The annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was a significant violation of international treaties. By annexing Austria, Hitler united all German-speaking people and expanded his empire. The Anschluss violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which specifically forbade the unification of Austria and Germany.
Annexation of the Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia
Hitler demanded and received the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with a significant ethnic German population. This action violated the Munich Agreement, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany with the condition that the rest of Czechoslovakia remained off-limits. However, in March 1939, Hitler broke this agreement and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union
Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, agreeing to divide Poland between them. This pact helped facilitate the invasion of Poland, which marked the start of World War II.
Invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland was a clear act of territorial aggression and expansion that started World War II. It violated the international order established after World War I and demonstrated Hitler's disregard for international treaties and agreements.
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The Austrian Nazi movement
Austrian Nazis gained supporters in 1931-32 as Hitler's popularity in Germany increased, and this was even more noticeable across Austria after Hitler was appointed German chancellor in January 1933. Austrian Nazis waged a propaganda and terror campaign, staging disruptive protests, brawling with political opponents and the police, and setting off explosives and tear gas bombs in public places and Jewish-owned businesses.
In May 1933, the Austrian government banned the Austrian Nazi Party and its affiliates. However, Austrian Nazis continued to operate illegally, and thousands fled across the border into Germany, where they formed a paramilitary unit known as the Austrian Legion.
On July 25, 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted to overthrow the Austrian government. Members of the Vienna SS took control of the Austrian chancellery, where the cabinet had been meeting, and shot and killed Chancellor Dollfuss. Other plotters seized control of the state radio station in Vienna and prematurely announced the coup. Outside Vienna, other Austrian Nazis also revolted against the government. However, the majority of Austrians remained loyal to the government, and the coup attempt failed.
After Dollfuss's death, Kurt von Schuschnigg took over as Austrian chancellor and dictator. He continued many of his predecessor's authoritarian policies, and the Austrian government arrested thousands of Austrian Nazis, including a number of the conspirators.
In February 1938, Schuschnigg travelled to meet with Hitler, expecting to discuss the tensions between Austria and Germany. However, Hitler was ready to take full control of Austria and made a series of demands, including that Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart be placed in charge of policing and security matters, and that Austrian Nazis imprisoned by the Austrian government be amnestied. Hitler used the presence of several German generals to intimidate Schuschnigg, who gave in and signed the agreement, known as the Berchtesgaden Agreement.
On March 9, Schuschnigg attempted to assert Austrian independence by calling a plebiscite, or referendum, on Austrian independence, to be held on March 13. Hitler was infuriated and decided to act, giving the Austrian government a series of ultimatums: Schuschnigg must call off the plebiscite, resign as chancellor, and ensure that Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas appointed Seyss-Inquart as the new Austrian chancellor. If these demands were not met, the German military would invade Austria.
Schuschnigg gave in, and on the evening of March 11, Austrian radio announced the cancellation of the upcoming plebiscite. Within minutes of Schuschnigg's resignation, swastika armbands and flags appeared on the streets, and Austrian Nazis attacked their political opponents and Jews without fear of repercussions.
On March 12, 1938, German troops crossed the border into Austria, encountering no resistance and being greeted with cheers and flowers. On March 13, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany.
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Hitler's intimidation of Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg
In 1938, Hitler intimidated Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg into signing the Berchtesgaden Agreement, which undermined Austrian sovereignty and paved the way for the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany.
Hitler had long desired to unite all Germans in a "Greater Germany" and viewed Austria as a German state. However, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg was strongly opposed to Hitler's goal of absorbing Austria into the Third Reich and wished for it to remain independent.
On February 12, 1938, Schuschnigg travelled to Hitler's residence in Berchtesgaden to discuss the tensions between the two countries. However, Hitler was ready to take full control of Austria and presented Schuschnigg with a set of demands, including:
- Austria's foreign and military policies were to be coordinated with Germany's.
- Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart was to be placed in charge of policing and security matters.
- Austrian Nazis imprisoned by the Austrian government were to be amnestied.
Hitler used the presence of several German generals to intimidate Schuschnigg, who eventually gave in and signed the agreement.
The agreement did not satisfy Hitler, and he continued to pressure Schuschnigg. On March 9, Schuschnigg attempted to assert Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite (referendum) on March 13, 1938. The referendum asked voters to support or reject a call for Austrian independence.
Hitler was infuriated by the plebiscite and responded with a series of ultimatums on March 11:
- Schuschnigg must call off the plebiscite.
- Schuschnigg must resign as chancellor.
- Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas must appoint Seyss-Inquart as the new chancellor.
If these demands were not met, Hitler threatened to invade Austria with military force. Schuschnigg initially resisted but eventually gave in and announced the cancellation of the plebiscite and his resignation.
Hitler's intimidation of Schuschnigg culminated in the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, known as the Anschluss, which took place on March 12-13, 1938. Austrian Nazis seized power, and German troops crossed the border without facing any resistance. Schuschnigg was placed under house arrest, and Seyss-Inquart became the new chancellor, signing the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law.
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Hitler's use of propaganda and public support
Hitler's ability to connect with the Austrian public was evident from the very beginning of his political career. In 1919, while infiltrating the German Workers' Party (DAP), Hitler became involved in a heated argument with a visitor who proposed Bavaria's secession from Prussia. Hitler's impassioned rebuttal impressed the other party members, and he was invited to join the DAP, becoming its 55th member.
Hitler understood the power of propaganda and effectively used it to spread his message and gain support. He was able to tap into the existing sentiments of many Austrians, who felt that their country was not economically viable after being stripped of its imperial land following World War I. The idea of a Greater Germany resonated with many Austrians, and Hitler's promise to incorporate ethnic Germans outside of Germany into this new nation appealed to their nationalist sentiments.
Hitler's propaganda campaign in Austria was aided by his supporters in the country, who conducted terrorist attacks and staged disruptive protests to make the Dollfuss regime look incompetent. They also set off explosives and tear gas bombs in public places and Jewish-owned businesses, creating an atmosphere of fear and instability. The Austrian Nazi Party, although initially weak and divided, gained momentum as Hitler's popularity in Germany increased.
Hitler also used the media to his advantage. He gave speeches that were broadcast live in Austria, such as the one on February 20, 1938, where he depicted Austrian Nazis as a persecuted minority. He also made effective use of newspapers and newsreels to spread his message and create a false narrative of events. For example, after the annexation of Austria, German newspapers printed a phony telegram supposedly sent by Chancellor Seyss, requesting German troops to restore order in Austria. Additionally, Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Propaganda Minister, created false reports of rioting and street fights involving Communists in Vienna to justify the invasion.
Hitler's propaganda efforts were not limited to words and images. He also carefully curated his public image and appearances to win over the Austrian people. For instance, he returned to his birthplace, Braunau am Inn, and visited his parents' grave site, presenting himself as a proud son of Austria. He even shed tears of joy when he was presented with the official document of the Anschluss, knowing that this display of emotion would resonate with many Austrians.
Hitler's use of propaganda and his ability to garner public support were crucial in achieving his goal of annexing Austria. By tapping into existing nationalist sentiments, exploiting economic insecurities, and using fear and intimidation tactics, he was able to shape public opinion and gain the backing of a significant portion of the Austrian population.
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Hitler's persecution of Austrian Jews
Hitler's hatred of Jews was also tied to his belief in the superiority of the German race and the need to protect its purity. He viewed the world as an arena for the permanent struggle between peoples and divided the world population into high and low races. Hitler's ideology held that the German people could only be strong if they were "pure", and so people with hereditary diseases or disabilities were considered harmful.
In 1938, Hitler annexed Austria, and the persecution of Austrian Jews began immediately. Jews were driven through the streets, their homes and shops plundered, and Jewish men and women were forced to wash away pro-independence slogans painted on the streets of Vienna. Jewish actresses were forced to clean toilets, and Jews were forced to scrub the city's streets while crowds jeered at them. They were also barred from public transport.
The process of "Aryanisation" began, and Jews were quickly driven out of public life. They were blocked from schools and universities and prohibited from almost all professions. Their organisations and institutions were dissolved, and their properties seized. Jews were also forced to wear the Yellow badge from September 1941.
The persecution culminated in the Kristallnacht pogrom in November 1938, when all synagogues and prayer houses in Vienna, except one, were destroyed, along with those in other Austrian cities. Over 6,000 Jews were arrested overnight, and most were deported to concentration camps in the following days.
By the end of 1941, 130,000 Jews had left Vienna, with 30,000 emigrating to the United States. Those who remained in Austria eventually became victims of the Holocaust. Of the more than 65,000 Viennese Jews who were deported to concentration camps, fewer than 2,000 survived.
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