Poland's Partition: Powers Divide A Country

In 1772, the country of Poland was partitioned by its neighbours, Prussia, Russia, and Austria, who took advantage of civil war and instability in Poland to claim portions of its territory as their own. This was the First Partition of Poland, which was followed by a Second Partition in 1793 and a Third Partition in 1795, after which Poland ceased to exist as a country for the next 123 years.

The First Partition of Poland in 1772

The tripartite agreement allowed each of the three great powers of Central and Eastern Europe—Austria, Prussia, and Russia—to annex a part of the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. For Prussia and Russia, the annexations meant the achievement of long-held territorial ambitions. The acquisition of Polish Prussia by Prussia forged the disparate possessions of King Frederick II in Germany and East Prussia into one contiguous whole. The tsarist government moved its border westwards, away from its vulnerable capital, Saint Petersburg.

The First Partition occurred after the balance of power in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) strengthening Russia and endangering Habsburg interests in the region. The three powers officially justified their actions as compensation for dealing with a troublesome neighbour and restoring order to Polish anarchy. However, all three were interested in territorial gains.

The First Partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772. By the first partition, the Commonwealth lost about 211,000 square kilometres (30% of its territory), with a population of over four to five million people, about a third of its population of fourteen million before the partitions. Poland lost lands in the west to Prussia, lands in the southwest to Austria, and lands in the east to Russia.

The Second Partition of Poland in 1793

By 1790, the Commonwealth had deteriorated to a helpless condition, and was forced into an alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790 gave false hope that the Commonwealth had found a protective ally. The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm. These reforms prompted aggressive actions from neighbouring countries, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Empress Catherine II was angered, arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France. Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792.

During the Polish-Russian War of 1792, Polish forces supporting the Constitution fought against the Imperial Russian Army, invited by the pro-Russian alliance of Polish magnates, known as the Targowica Confederation. The conservative nobility believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty. However, the Polish forces were abandoned by their Prussian allies and badly outnumbered. They fought a defensive war under Prince Józef Poniatowski with some success, but were ordered to abandon their efforts by their supreme commander, King Stanisław August Poniatowski. The King decided to join the Targowica Confederation, as demanded by the Russians.

Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms, with no overt goal of another partition. However, Frederick William II of Prussia saw this as an opportunity to strengthen his country. He demanded that Prussia be compensated with parts of Polish territory, as it had abandoned Poland as a close ally, participated in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, and recently suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Valmy. Russia soon accepted the Prussian offer.

On 23 January 1793, Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive broad swaths of Commonwealth territory. Russian and Prussian troops took control of the territories they claimed, with Russian troops already present, and Prussian troops meeting only limited resistance. In 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm, the last Sejm of the Commonwealth, agreed to the Russian and Prussian territorial demands in the presence of Russian forces. The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth but also because its deputies had been bribed and coerced by the Russians.

Imperial Russia annexed 250,000 square kilometres, while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres. The Commonwealth lost about 307,000 square kilometres, being reduced to 215,000 square kilometres. Russia received the Kiev Voivodeship, Bracław Voivodeship, Podole Voivodeship and Minsk Voivodeship, and parts of other Voivodeships. Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into viceroyalties. Prussia received the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń (Thorn), and other Voivodeships. Prussia organized its newly acquired territories into South Prussia.

The Commonwealth lost about 5 million people; only about 4 million people remained in the Polish–Lithuanian lands. What was left of the Commonwealth was a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced army. The Targowica confederates and the king lost much prestige and support, while the reformers attracted increasing support. In March 1794, the Kościuszko Uprising began, and its defeat in November that year resulted in the final Third Partition of Poland, ending the existence of the Commonwealth.

The Third Partition of Poland in 1795

The First Partition of Poland had occurred in 1772, and the Second in 1793, with each resulting in the loss of significant Polish territory. By the Third Partition, Poland had been progressively reduced in size, and the final division erased any independent Polish state from the map. The Third Partition was not fully settled until January 26, 1797.

In the Third Partition, Russia acquired Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Neman River, and the rest of the Volhynian Ukraine. Prussia obtained the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw, and a section of Lithuania west of the Neman. Austria took the remaining section of Little Poland, from Kraków northeastward to the arc of the Northern Bug River.

The King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, under Russian military escort, abdicated on November 25, 1795, in Grodno, before leaving for Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he spent the remainder of his life. This act ensured Russia's prominence among the partitioning powers.

The partitions of Poland resulted in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years. During this period, Poles were forced to seek a change in the status quo in Europe, with many emigrating and becoming revolutionaries in the 19th century. Polish desire for freedom became a defining part of Polish romanticism, and Polish revolutionaries participated in uprisings in Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and Imperial Russia.

The Austro-Prussian War in 1866

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was a conflict between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with both sides aided by allies within the German Confederation. The war was the culmination of a long-standing rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and resulted in a shift of power among the German states from Austrian to Prussian dominance.

The immediate cause of the war was a dispute over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which Prussia and Austria had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Tensions escalated in early 1866, with Prussia protesting against an Austrian decision regarding the region's governance. Despite attempts at diplomacy, both sides began mobilising their troops, with Prussia also forming an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification.

The war began with a Prussian invasion of Holstein on June 9, 1866, followed by the invasion of Hanover, Saxony, and the Electorate of Hesse on June 15. Italy declared war on Austria on June 20, attacking the Austrian province of Venetia. Prussia's rapid mobilisation and superior railway system gave them an advantage, allowing them to concentrate their forces more quickly than Austria.

The main campaign of the war took place in Bohemia, where the Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged and met the Austrian army at the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3. The Prussian victory at Königgrätz was decisive, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times higher than Prussia's. An armistice between the two sides came into effect on July 22, and a preliminary peace was signed on July 26.

The war ended with Prussian hegemony over the German states and the dissolution of the German Confederation. Prussia annexed several of Austria's former allies, including Schleswig-Holstein and Hannover, and formed the North German Confederation, excluding Austria. Italy also annexed the Austrian province of Venetia. The war had lasting consequences, paving the way for German and Italian unification, and establishing Prussia as a dominant power in Europe.

The unification of Germany by Prussia in 1871

Background and Context

• The Rise of German Nationalism: The Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) sparked a sense of German nationalism and a desire for unification among German-speaking peoples. However, Germany remained divided into numerous small states, with Austria and Prussia vying for dominance.
• The Zollverein: Prussia established the Zollverein, a customs union, in 1818, which reduced economic competition and facilitated trade among German states. This enhanced Prussia's economic power and influence.
• Liberalism and Revolution: The spread of liberalism and the revolutions of 1848-1849 further fueled nationalist sentiments. Liberals sought to establish a unified German nation-state, but their efforts were thwarted by conservative forces, particularly in Prussia.
• Rivalry Between Austria and Prussia: The two powers competed for influence over the German states, with Prussia challenging Austria's traditional leadership. This rivalry, known as German dualism, presented two options for unification: Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany" excluding Austria) or Grossdeutschland ("Greater Germany" including Austria).

Otto von Bismarck and the Road to Unification

• Otto von Bismarck: Appointed as Minister-President of Prussia in 1862, Bismarck played a pivotal role in the unification process. He pursued a Realpolitik approach, skillfully manipulating diplomatic and military strategies to achieve Prussian hegemony.
• The Schleswig-Holstein Question: The dispute over the territories of Schleswig and Holstein, jointly occupied by Prussia and Austria after the Second Schleswig War (1864), escalated tensions between the two powers. Bismarck exploited this conflict to further Prussia's interests.
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. Prussia, allied with Italy, defeated Austria and established its dominance over the German states. This marked a shift in power away from Austria.
• North German Confederation: After the war, Prussia formed the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and the southern German states. This confederation solidified Prussia's control over northern Germany and laid the foundation for future unification.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Bismarck carefully orchestrated events to provoke a war with France, knowing that the southern German states would join the conflict out of fear of French aggression. Prussia's decisive victory over France demonstrated its military prowess and strengthened its position as the leader of German unification.

Proclamation of the German Empire

• Treaty of Frankfurt (1871): The Franco-Prussian War ended with the Treaty of Frankfurt, which established the border between France and Germany and included significant territorial and financial concessions from France. This treaty paved the way for the final stages of unification.
• Proclamation of Wilhelm I: On January 18, 1871, the southern German states officially joined the North German Confederation, and Wilhelm I was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of the German Empire. This marked the symbolic conclusion of the unification process, although legally significant events had already occurred on January 1, 1871, with the accession of the south German states.
• Internal Political and Administrative Unification: The unified German Empire consisted of 26 political entities, including kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities. Prussia played a dominant role in the new empire, with Wilhelm I as Emperor and Bismarck as Chancellor. The empire adopted a constitution, established a federal structure, and integrated the military forces of the various states.

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