The Balkan States: A Complex History Of Nation-Building

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was created from Serbia, Montenegro, and territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. The idea of a unified South Slavic state had been floated as early as the 17th century, but it was not until after World War I that the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was established, which would later become better known as Yugoslavia.

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was created in 1918

The creation of Yugoslavia was a complex process involving various political entities and national movements. Here is a detailed account of the formation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia:

Historical Context

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia's formation was shaped by the events of World War I. The conflict between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Kingdom of Serbia resulted in the occupation of Serbia by Austro-Hungarian and German forces from 1915 to 1918. During this period, Serbia endured harsh military rule, with deportations, executions, and economic exploitation. Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Montenegro, which entered the war alongside Serbia, was also occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces in 1916, leading to the exile of King Nikola I.

Intellectual Origins

The concept of a unified South Slavic state emerged among the intelligentsia during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Croatian writers and philosophers envisioned a state encompassing all South Slavs to regain freedom from centuries of occupation under various empires. This movement, known as the Illyrian movement, attracted prominent Croatian intellectuals and gained momentum due to the Revolutions of 1848 and the suppression of freedom movements by the empires.

Political Initiatives

In 1848, a plan for a South Slavic Federation was proposed by the Serbian government, initiated by members of the Secret Belgrade Circle. This plan envisioned a federation with a constitutional monarchy, headed by a king, and divided into three tribes: the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, each with autonomy and equal representation.

During World War I, South Slavic political figures, such as Ante Trumbić and Ivan Meštrović, fled to London, where they established the Yugoslav Committee in 1915. The committee aimed to represent the South Slavs of Austria-Hungary and worked to raise funds, particularly from South Slavs living in the Americas. They advocated for the unification of Habsburg South Slav lands with the Kingdom of Serbia.

The Corfu Declaration

On 20 July 1917, the Yugoslav Committee, together with the Serbian government-in-exile, issued the Corfu Declaration, outlining their shared intention to create a new kingdom. This declaration was supported by the Montenegrin Committee for National Unification, a pro-Yugoslav exile group based in Paris, despite opposition from the official Montenegrin government-in-exile of King Nikola I. The Corfu Declaration set the foundation for the post-war state, emphasising the unity of the South Slavic peoples and their shared vital interests.

The National Council of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs

As the Habsburg Empire dissolved towards the end of the war, a pro-Entente National Council of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs seized power in Zagreb on 6 October 1918. This council declared independence and expressed its wish to enter a state of union with Serbia and Montenegro, seeking help from the Serbian military to control anarchy in Croatia.

The Podgorica Assembly

In Montenegro, a different course of events unfolded. The Podgorica Assembly, encircled by Serbian army detachments, met on 26 November 1918 and voted to depose King Nikola I and unite with Serbia, pending the formation of a common state of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. This assembly elected a provisional executive body, the "Montenegrin Committee for Unity with Serbia," which oversaw Montenegro's integration into the new kingdom.

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia

With the unification of Serbia and Montenegro and the support of the National Council of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, colloquially known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was proclaimed on 1 December 1918 in Belgrade. This marked the culmination of the long-standing aspiration for a unified South Slavic state and set the stage for the subsequent history of Yugoslavia.

Serbia and Montenegro fought together against Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia on July 28, 1914, marked the beginning of World War I. This declaration was made a month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Habsburg throne, by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary deemed Serbia responsible for the murder and aimed to quash its independence, which it viewed as a threat to the empire.

The first invasion of Serbia, dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership, began on August 12, 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army crossed the Drina River. Despite three unsuccessful offensives between August and December 1914, the Austro-Hungarian and German forces eventually breached the Serbian front from the north and west in October 1915, with Bulgaria attacking from the east. By January 1916, all of Serbia had been occupied by the Central Powers.

During the occupation, the Austro-Hungarian forces committed numerous atrocities against the Serbian population, including massacres, hostage-taking, and the destruction of villages. Serbia was divided into occupation zones, with the northern three-quarters governed by the Austro-Hungarians and the remaining areas controlled by the Bulgarians. The occupiers aimed to denationalise the Serb population, banning political organisations, public assemblies, and imposing strict controls over schools and the media.

The Kingdom of Montenegro, which had entered the war alongside Serbia, was also occupied by the Austro-Hungarian forces starting January 6, 1916. By January 16, 1916, the whole of Montenegro was occupied, and it capitulated on January 23, with King Nikola I fleeing into exile. The Austro-Hungarians established a General Government in Montenegro, modelled on the one in Serbia.

The liberation of Serbia and Montenegro came in September 1918, when Allied forces, led by the Serbian Second Army and the Yugoslav Volunteer Division, broke through the Salonica front. This led to the surrender of Bulgaria and the quick liberation of Serbia, with all pre-war Serbian territory liberated by November 1, 1918, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian occupation.

Austria-Hungary's occupation of Serbia lasted from 1915 to 1918

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia lasted from late 1915 until the end of World War I in 1918.

The First Invasion of Serbia

The first invasion of Serbia began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This marked the beginning of World War I. The Austro-Hungarian leadership sought to quash Serbia's independence, which it viewed as a threat to the future of the empire. The invasion, dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarians, was led by Austrian General Oskar Potiorek and consisted of three unsuccessful offensives between August and December 1914. During this time, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied parts of Serbia for 13 days, committing numerous atrocities against civilians and taking hostages. Despite these attacks, the Royal Serbian Army successfully repelled the invasion, securing the first Allied victory of World War I.

The Second Invasion of Serbia

The second invasion of Serbia was launched on October 6, 1915, by a combined force of Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German troops, led by German General August von Mackensen. This offensive marked Austria-Hungary's fourth attempt to conquer Serbia. By early November, Serbia had fallen, and the country was divided into occupation zones between Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. The Royal Serbian Army was forced to retreat through Montenegro and Albania, eventually evacuating to Greece.

The Occupation of Serbia

During the occupation, Serbia was governed by a military administration. The country was divided into two main occupation zones: the Austro-Hungarian zone, which covered the northern three-quarters of Serbia, and the Bulgarian zone. Germany, while not directly annexing any Serbian territory, took control of railways, mines, and agricultural resources in both zones. The Austro-Hungarian occupation was led by a military governor, with a civil commissioner as their deputy. The occupiers aimed to denationalize the Serb population, banning political organizations, public assemblies, and imposing martial law. They also engaged in mass deportations, sending between 150,000 and 200,000 civilians to internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary.

Liberation of Serbia

In September 1918, Allied forces, led by the Serbian Second Army and the Yugoslav Volunteer Division, broke through the Macedonian front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the quick liberation of Serbia. By November 1, 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, bringing an end to the Austro-Hungarian occupation.

Serbia was an independent state as of 1882

Serbia gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire in two stages. First, through the Serbian Revolution, which lasted from 1804 to 1817, and second, through the recognition at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. However, it was not until 1882 that Serbia was internationally recognized as an independent state. This period marked a significant turning point in Serbian history and paved the way for the country's development as a modern nation.

The Serbian Revolution was a pivotal moment in Serbia's path to independence. It began with the First Serbian Uprising in 1804, led by Đorđe Petrović, also known as Karađorđe (Black George). This uprising succeeded in freeing Serbia from direct Ottoman rule and establishing a high level of autonomy, with the creation of the Serbian Principality. The Second Serbian Uprising of 1815-1817, led by Miloš Obrenović, further consolidated Serbian autonomy, leading to the recognition of hereditary rule for Obrenović and his descendants.

Despite achieving autonomy, Serbia still had to navigate complex international politics and assert its independence in the face of competing empires and influences in the region. This challenge became particularly acute after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which aimed to redraw the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. While the Congress recognized Austrian dominance over much of the Balkan region, it did not address the status of Serbia, leaving it in a precarious position.

It was not until 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, that Serbia's independence was formally recognized by the Great Powers of the time: Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany. This recognition came in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, in which Serbia supported Russia against the Ottoman Empire. Serbia's crucial role in this conflict brought it to the attention of the Great Powers, who acknowledged its independence as part of the Treaty of Berlin.

However, even after the Congress of Berlin, Serbia still faced challenges in asserting its full independence. It was only in 1882, four years after the Congress, that Serbia's independence was truly secured. In that year, Serbia, under the leadership of King Milan I, managed to extricate itself from the last vestiges of Ottoman influence and asserted its complete independence. This pivotal moment marked the beginning of a new era in Serbian history, as the country embarked on a path of modernization and nation-building.

In conclusion, Serbia's journey to becoming an independent state was a protracted and complex process. While the Serbian Revolution and the Congress of Berlin were significant milestones, it was not until 1882 that Serbia truly gained its independence. This hard-won independence laid the foundation for Serbia to emerge as a key player in the Balkan region and to forge its destiny on the world stage. The date of 1882 thus holds a special place in Serbian history, symbolizing the nation's resilience and determination in the face of historical challenges.

Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908

On October 6, 1908, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary announced its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, two provinces in the Balkan region of Europe that were formerly under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This annexation, known as the Bosnian Crisis, upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe.

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary was the culmination of a complex series of political and diplomatic manoeuvres that began in the mid-19th century. Here is a detailed account of the events leading up to and following this significant incident.

The Background to the Annexation

Bosnia and Herzegovina had been under the control of the Ottoman Empire for centuries when, in the mid-19th century, a series of violent rebellions known as the Bosnian Uprising took place. The Ottoman Empire responded to these rebellions with violent and repressive measures, leading to the intervention of other European powers.

In 1877, the Russian Tsar Alexander II obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary, known as the Budapest Conventions, in which the two powers agreed to divide up their spheres of influence in the Balkans. As a result, Russia annexed Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary was given free rein to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it did in 1878 with the approval of the other European powers at the Congress of Berlin. This occupation was formalised in the Treaty of Berlin, which was signed by all the Great Powers, including Russia, and which recognised the special rights of Austria-Hungary in these provinces.

However, the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary was not without opposition. The local population, which included Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, put up fierce resistance to the Austrian-Hungarian troops, resulting in significant battles and casualties on both sides. Despite this opposition, the Austro-Hungarian authorities embarked on a series of social and administrative reforms aimed at making Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". They advocated for a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation, attempting to insulate it from the influence of its irredentist neighbours, Serbia, Croatia, and the Ottoman Empire.

The Annexation and its Consequences

In the early 20th century, nationalism became an increasingly important factor in Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three main ethnic groups—the Muslims, Serbs, and Croats—dominating elections. Each of these groups had its own aspirations and agendas, which often conflicted with those of the Austro-Hungarian authorities and each other. The Serbs, in particular, sought to gain religious and educational autonomy from the Austro-Hungarians and eventually to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Kingdom of Serbia.

It was in this context that Baron Aloys von Aerenthal, the foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, saw an opportunity to assert his empire's dominance in the Balkans. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Ottoman Sultan and the recent defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Aerenthal announced on October 6, 1908, that Austria-Hungary was formally annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire and was met with protests from all the Great Powers, as well as from Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro.

The annexation caused a major diplomatic crisis, known as the Bosnian Crisis, which permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia. Serbia mobilised its army and demanded that the annexation be reversed or that it receive compensation in the form of territory in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. When these demands were rejected, Serbia began setting up secret guerrilla bands and plotting insurrection in Bosnia, fuelling Austrian fears of Slavic expansionism in the region.

The crisis was eventually resolved through a series of complex diplomatic manoeuvres and threats, with Russia and Serbia ultimately backing down and accepting the amendment of the Treaty of Berlin to recognise the annexation. However, the damage to Austro-Serbian relations was irreparable, and the two countries would go on to declare war on each other in 1914, marking the beginning of World War I.

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