Who Ruled Angola During The Great War?

Angola was a Portuguese colony from 1575 until 1951, when it became an overseas province of Portugal. In 1972, Portugal granted Angola autonomous state status, but the country remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it gained independence.

Portugal's colonial rule and the slave trade

In 1914, Portugal controlled Angola, having established a presence in the region in the late 15th century. Portuguese colonial rule in Angola was characterised by a long and violent history of slave trading and exploitation of natural resources.

The Portuguese first arrived in what is now northern Angola in 1482, encountering the Kingdom of the Congo. They gradually took control of the coastal areas through a series of treaties and wars throughout the 16th century. The Portuguese interest in Angola quickly turned to the slave trade, and by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves for the Americas.

The Portuguese established small trading posts on the lower Congo and a more important settlement on the Atlantic coast at Soyo, in the territory of the Kongo Kingdom. In 1575, they founded Luanda on the coast, which became a major hub of the Atlantic slave trade. From 1580 to the 1820s, over a million people from Angola were exported as slaves, mainly to Brazil, but also to North America. The colony of Angola developed largely as a slave-trading enterprise, with the Portuguese working alongside local Imbangala and Mbundu peoples, who were notable slave hunters.

The slave trade devastated Angolan communities and agriculture, causing mass migrations of entire villages to escape it. It also brought diseases like smallpox, which hit the population in devastating waves. The Portuguese gradually gained control of the interior in the 18th century and full administrative control of the entire territory in the early 20th century.

The slave trade in Angola was officially abolished by the Portuguese government in 1836, but it continued in various forms until the early 20th century. Even after the official end of the slave trade, forced labour and exploitation of natural resources remained hallmarks of Portuguese colonial rule in Angola.

Angola's independence in 1975

In 1914, Angola was controlled by Portugal, which had established a colonial presence in the region in the 15th century. By the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves for the Americas.

Fast forward to the 1950s and 60s, and the seeds of Angola's independence were being sown. The nationalist movement was developing, and the guerrilla war for independence had begun. The Angolan War of Independence (1961-1974) was fought between Angolan nationalist forces and Portugal. It began as an uprising against the Portuguese imposition of forced cotton cultivation.

In April 1974, a peaceful coup in Lisbon overthrew Portugal's Estado Novo dictatorship. The new regime stopped all military action in its African colonies and declared its intention to grant them independence.

In January 1975, the three main Angolan revolutionary groups—the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)—signed the Alvor Agreement with the new Portuguese Government. This agreement granted Angolan independence and provided for a three-way power-sharing government.

However, trust quickly broke down between the three groups, and Angola descended into civil war as each group vied for sole power. The MPLA, with backing from the Portuguese Communist Party, Cuba, and the Soviet Union, defeated the FNLA's bid to seize Luanda by force. The MPLA then turned on UNITA, chasing its representatives out of the capital.

The Portuguese army was tired of war and refused to impose peace or supervise elections. Portugal ultimately withdrew from Angola in November 1975 without formally handing power to any movement, and nearly all European settlers fled the country.

The MPLA, in control of the capital city, declared itself the government of independent Angola and was recognised by many African countries. UNITA and the FNLA set up a rival government in Huambo and called on South African forces to eject the MPLA from Luanda.

Cuba sent troops to defend the MPLA, pushing the South Africans out of Angola and gaining control of all the provincial capitals. The Cuban expeditionary force, which eventually numbered around 40,000-50,000 soldiers, remained in Angola to pacify the country and ward off South African attacks.

In November 1975, the MPLA leader, Agostinho Neto, announced the day of Angolan independence as November 11, 1975, and Lisbon decided to withdraw its troops.

The Angolan Civil War (1975-2002)

The Angolan Civil War was a 27-year conflict that began in 1975, immediately after Angola gained independence from Portugal, and continued until 2002. The war was a power struggle between two former anti-colonial guerrilla movements: the communist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the anti-communist National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). The war was also fuelled by ethnic tensions and international pressures.

Origins of the Conflict

The MPLA, formed in 1956, had its support base in the Ambundu people and was largely supported by other African countries, Cuba, and the Soviet Union. The MPLA initially called for a united front of all anti-colonial Angolan forces but had limited appeal beyond the Mbundu and multiracial Mestiqos. The MPLA's nationalist drive did not resonate with the Bakongo people, who supported the militant right-wing FNLA leader Holden Roberto's call for the reestablishment of the ancient Kingdom of Kongo in northern Angola. The formation of UNITA in 1966 by Jonas Savimbi, a prominent former FNLA leader, attracted the largest support base—the Ovimbundu ethnic group. UNITA served as a vehicle for opposing the ethnic groups supporting the FNLA and the MPLA.

A Brief Account of the Conflict

After the Portuguese withdrawal from Angola, the Cuban- and Soviet-backed MPLA secured control of Luanda and declared itself the new government of independent Angola. The MPLA received support and recognition from several African countries and international organisations. In contrast, the FNLA's internal support had deteriorated, although it maintained relations with Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and was well-armed. The FNLA attempted to overthrow the MPLA in Luanda but was unsuccessful due to Cuban and Soviet support for the MPLA. The MPLA then turned its attention to UNITA, which posed a significant electoral threat despite its weaker military strength. The FNLA and UNITA established a rival government in Huambo, with the support of South African forces, but were ultimately forced out by the MPLA with the help of Cuban troops.

The conflict was characterised by periods of major fighting interspersed with fragile periods of peace. The war can be roughly divided into three periods of major combat: from 1975 to 1991, 1992 to 1994, and from 1998 to 2002. During the war, UNITA received significant military aid and support from the United States and South Africa, while the MPLA continued to be backed by Cuba and the Soviet Union. The conflict became intertwined with the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo and the South African Border War.

In 1992, Angola held its first free and fair elections, but Savimbi rejected the outcome, accusing the MPLA of fraud, and resumed civil war. UNITA was sanctioned by the UN, and the United States officially recognised the MPLA government. In 1994, the Lusaka Accord was signed, with both parties agreeing to a compromise: UNITA would cease fighting and, in return, be incorporated into the government. However, tensions continued, and the agreement broke down. In 2002, Jonas Savimbi was assassinated, leading to negotiations between UNITA and the MPLA, resulting in a peace agreement and bringing an end to the 27-year civil war.

The role of foreign powers in the Civil War

In 1914, Portugal was in control of Angola. However, in the context of the Angolan Civil War, which took place between 1975 and 2002, several foreign powers played a significant role.

The Angolan Civil War was a conflict between the communist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the anti-communist National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). The war began after Angola gained independence from Portugal in November 1975, and it was marked by a power struggle between these two former anti-colonial guerrilla movements.

The MPLA and UNITA had different roots in Angolan society and incompatible leaderships, despite sharing the goal of ending colonial rule. The MPLA was primarily an urban-based movement in Luanda, composed largely of Mbundu people. On the other hand, UNITA, an offshoot of the FNLA, was mainly composed of Ovimbundu people and had its base in rural areas.

The Cold War superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies, Cuba and South Africa, provided military assistance and support to the opposing factions in Angola. The conflict became intertwined with the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo and the South African Border War.

The United States provided aid, training, and financial support to UNITA and the FNLA. South Africa also supported UNITA, aiming to counter the Chinese presence in Angola and end the use of the country as a base for rebels fighting for Namibia's independence. Additionally, Israel acted as a proxy arms supplier for South Africa and UNITA.

On the other hand, the Soviet Union provided military training and equipment to the MPLA. Cuba played a crucial role in supporting the MPLA, sending thousands of troops and providing significant combat and support personnel contingents. Yugoslavia also provided financial and military support to the MPLA, including $14 million in 1977.

The involvement of foreign powers in the Angolan Civil War had a significant impact on the conflict, with both sides receiving substantial military and financial assistance. The war resulted in devastating consequences for Angola, with a high number of casualties, displacement, and severe damage to the country's infrastructure and economy.

The legacy of the Civil War

In 1914, Portugal had consolidated its colonial control over Angola, though local resistance persisted.

The Angolan Civil War lasted from 1975 to 2002 and had a devastating impact on the country, resulting in severe destruction and displacement. The conflict left a lasting legacy that continued to affect Angola for years after it ended. Here is an overview of the key aspects of the war's legacy:

Humanitarian Crisis and Displacement: The civil war caused a massive humanitarian crisis, with approximately one-third of Angola's population, or 4.28 million people, internally displaced. The war disrupted social and economic life, leading to limited access to basic services such as medical care and water. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that life expectancy in Angola was less than 40 years, and the country had one of the highest child mortality rates, with 30% of children dying before the age of five. The conflict also resulted in family separations, with over 100,000 children separated from their families.

Infrastructure Destruction: The prolonged conflict severely damaged Angola's infrastructure, including public administration, the economy, and religious institutions. The country's economy suffered significant setbacks, and the social fabric of the nation was torn apart, leading to a challenging recovery process.

Landmines and Civilian Casualties: Landmines were extensively used during the civil war, and their presence continued to pose a significant threat to civilians even after the war ended. Landmine accidents and other blasts resulting from explosives installed during the conflict continued to cause casualties, with over 156 deaths reported between 2018 and 2024.

Political and Social Divisions: The civil war exacerbated existing political and social divisions in Angola. The country's political landscape remained fragile, and efforts to establish a stable democracy faced challenges due to lingering mistrust and rivalries.

International Relations: The civil war had a significant impact on Angola's relations with other countries. The conflict attracted foreign involvement, with the United States, Soviet Union, Cuba, and South Africa supporting different factions. These international alliances and interventions contributed to tensions during the Cold War and influenced Angola's foreign policy decisions in the post-war era.

Reconciliation and Peacebuilding: The end of the civil war ushered in a period of reconciliation and peacebuilding efforts. The government worked towards integrating former combatants into society and promoting national unity. However, the process of healing and reconciliation was challenging due to the depth of divisions and the trauma inflicted by the war.

The Angolan Civil War left deep scars on the country, and the process of recovery and reconciliation was complex and prolonged. The war's legacy continued to shape Angola's social, political, and economic landscape, and the country worked towards rebuilding and creating a more stable and peaceful future.

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