Who Really Owned Belize?

Guatemala claimed ownership of Belize until 1992.

Belize, previously known as British Honduras, was a British colony until 1981. Guatemala recognised Belize's independence in 1992, but the two countries have yet to resolve their border dispute.

Guatemala's territorial claim

Guatemala has claimed sovereignty over Belize, or part of its territory, since the country's independence in 1981. This claim is based on Guatemala's rights as a former colony of Spain.

The Guatemalan territorial claim involves approximately 53% of Belize's mainland, which includes significant portions of four districts: Belize, Cayo, Stann Creek, and Toledo. Roughly 43% of the country's population (around 154,949 Belizeans) reside in this region.

The dispute has been mediated by the United Kingdom, Caribbean Community heads of government, the Organisation of American States, Mexico, and the United States. In 2018, Guatemala held a referendum, in which 95% of voters agreed to take the territorial claim to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Belize held a similar referendum in 2019, in which 55.4% of voters opted to send the matter to the ICJ.

Guatemala recognised Belize's independence in 1992, but the border dispute between the two countries remains unresolved.

The Battle of St. George's Caye

The territory that is now Belize was under dispute from as early as the mid-1700s by Britain and Spain. Although Spain never occupied Belize, they considered it part of their Central American colonies, which included portions of present-day Mexico and Guatemala. The British had entered the territory as early as 1638 to harvest logwood and later mahogany. Spain recognised this trade in the Treaty of Paris (1763) but did not undertake to draw boundaries, leading to further disputes.

The Spanish made several attempts to expel the Baymen from Belize in the years 1716, 1724, 1733, 1747, 1751, and 1779. On 10 September 1798, the Baymen defeated the Spanish Navy, marking the final Spanish attempt to take over Belize.

The Spanish fleet, consisting of 32 ships and over 2,000 troops, engaged with the Baymen at St. George's Caye. Despite the overwhelming Spanish numbers, the Baymen won a decisive victory, ending Spanish interest in the region. The British declared themselves the winners, and the Spanish withdrew, never to return to Belize.

Belize's independence

Belize's road to independence was a long one, with the country achieving independence from the United Kingdom on 21 September 1981.

The history of Belize dates back thousands of years, with the Maya civilisation flourishing in the area from around 1500 BC to 1200 BC. In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors and missionaries arrived in the region, claiming it as part of the Spanish Empire. However, they did not settle the territory due to a lack of resources and the presence of defending tribes from the Yucatán.

In the 17th century, English settlers began exploring the area, attracted by the availability of logwood. The first permanent British settlement was founded in the 1710s, and over time, the British and Spanish would clash over control of the region. In 1798, Britain defeated the Spanish in the Battle of St. George's Caye, the last military engagement between the two powers.

In 1840, Belize officially became a British colony, and in 1862, it was declared a Crown colony, now known as British Honduras. During this period, the British and Guatemalan governments began negotiating over Guatemalan claims to sovereignty over Belizean territory. These negotiations would continue for over a century, stalling progress towards Belizean independence.

In the 20th century, Belize began pushing for self-governance. In 1950, the People's United Party (PUP) was formed, advocating for representative and responsible government. In 1964, Britain granted British Honduras self-governance under a new constitution, and in 1973, the territory's name was officially changed to Belize.

In the 1970s, frustrated by the lack of progress in negotiations with Guatemala, Belize took its case for self-determination to various international forums, gaining support from several Latin American countries. Finally, in November 1980, the United Nations passed a resolution demanding Belize's independence.

Belize was granted independence on 21 September 1981, with George Cadle Price of the PUP as the country's first prime minister. However, Guatemala refused to recognise the new nation due to the ongoing territorial dispute. It was only in 1992 that Guatemala formally recognised Belize's independence, and the border dispute remains unresolved.

Belize has since maintained its close ties with the United Kingdom, remaining a member of the Commonwealth with King Charles III as its monarch and head of state. The country has also continued to develop economically, with a growing emphasis on tourism and construction, alongside its traditional agricultural and agro-based industries.

The Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859

Guatemala claimed ownership of Belize until 1991, when it recognised the independent state of Belize. However, it did not accept its boundaries. The roots of this dispute can be traced back to the 17th century when British settlers and their slaves came to the coasts of Central America to cut logwood. While the Spanish Crown considered these intruders to be pirates, the British Crown initially did nothing to protect them.

In 1763, Spain, as part of the Treaty of Paris, gave these "Baymen" the right to cut logwood within a small area that remained subject to Spanish sovereignty. These rights were extended by treaty in 1783 and 1786, when the boundaries of what had since become an official British settlement were agreed. Despite this, Spain continued to try to dislodge the settlers, with the last attempt occurring in 1798.

In 1821, Central America gained independence from Spain and, in 1823, from Mexico. It then functioned as a federation until 1838, when it splintered into five separate republics, one of which was Guatemala. By this time, the Baymen had pushed the boundaries of their settlement far south of the limits agreed with Spain in 1786. As such, when Great Britain won grudging acceptance from the United States that the "Settlement in the Bay of Honduras" did not challenge the Monroe Doctrine, Guatemala was pressured into signing a boundary treaty based on effective occupation.

This treaty, known as the Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859, was ratified by both sides in 1859, with the country becoming known as the colony of British Honduras in 1862. The treaty was signed and ratified by both Britain and Guatemala in Guatemala City on 30 April 1859. The key players in this treaty were:

• William Walker, the American adventurer who attempted to conquer several Central American countries
• Guatemala, which was concerned about American filibusters and wanted to guarantee its sovereignty
• Britain, which had a good trade agreement with Guatemala and wanted to expand its prosperous trade into Central America
• The United States, whose president, Polk, was known for his expansionist policies

> Beginning at the mouth of the River Sarstoon in the Bay of Honduras, and proceeding up the mid-channel thereof to Gracias á Dios Falls; then turning to the right and continuing by a line drawn direct from Gracias á Dios Falls to Garbutt's Falls on the River Belize, and from Garbutt's Falls due north until it strikes the Mexican frontier.

However, the treaty also included Article VII, which ambiguously called for both parties to cooperate in building a road from Guatemala City to the Atlantic coast near the settlement of Belize. Disputes over each government's expected contribution prevented the article's fulfillment, and an additional convention in 1863 to clarify Article VII lapsed because Guatemala failed to ratify it.

Despite this disagreement, both sides continued to regard the 1859 treaty as valid and even made efforts to demarcate the shared boundaries over the next eighty years. However, in 1939, Guatemala unilaterally abrogated the treaty, claiming that the United Kingdom had breached Article VII. This led to a threat of invasion and the stationing of British troops in British Honduras.

Diplomatic efforts to resolve the dispute continued over the following decades, but ultimately proved futile, and Belize gained independence in 1981 without the issue being settled. While Guatemala recognised the independent state of Belize in 1991, it continued to claim the territory. It wasn't until 2008 that both sides agreed to have simultaneous referendums to send the issue to the International Court of Justice.

The Maya civilisation

The Maya people were skilled at making pottery, carving jade, knapping flint, and making elaborate costumes of feathers. The architecture of Maya civilisation included temples and palatial residences organised in groups around plazas. These structures were built of cut stone, covered with stucco, and elaborately decorated and painted. Stylised carvings and paintings, along with sculptured stelae and geometric patterns on buildings, constitute a highly developed style of art.

The Classic period (c. 250 – 900 AD) saw the Maya civilisation develop many city-states linked by a complex trade network. The Maya were deeply religious and worshipped various gods related to nature, including the sun, moon, rain, and corn. At the top of Maya society were the kings, or "kuhul ajaw" (holy lords), who claimed to be related to gods and followed a hereditary succession. They were thought to serve as mediators between the gods and people on Earth and performed elaborate religious ceremonies and rituals.

The Postclassic period (c. 950 – 1539 AD) saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north and the expansion of the aggressive K'iche' kingdom in the Guatemalan Highlands. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonised the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city, in 1697. Despite nearly 500 years of European domination, many aspects of Maya culture persist in the area today.

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