The Austria-Hungary Empire's Annexation Agenda: Conquering Neighbors

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a union of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The two were joined in 1867 by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, which gave Hungary full internal autonomy and its own parliament, while the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph became King of Hungary. The two states were considered a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs. The empire was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous. It controlled a broad territory in Central and Southern Europe and was one of the major powers in Europe. However, it was made up of many different ethnic and language groups, which led to nationalism becoming an issue, and eventually, the empire's downfall. After World War I, the empire was dismantled into several separate states.

The Austrian Empire

The Kingdom of Hungary was administered separately from the rest of the empire, with its own institutions. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary. This marked the end of the Austrian Empire as a separate entity, and the beginning of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy.

The Kingdom of Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a dual monarchy, with the Austrian Emperor, Franz Joseph, also becoming King of Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary retained its own parliament, prime minister, cabinet and domestic self-government. The two kingdoms were joined for the purposes of war and foreign affairs, with a common ministry of foreign affairs and defence maintained under the monarch's direct authority.

The Balkans

In 1878, following the Russo-Turkish War, the Congress of Berlin was organised by the Great Powers. The resulting Treaty of Berlin gave Austria-Hungary joint military and civilian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had formerly been under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. This was a significant gain for the Austro-Hungarian Empire as it allowed them to gain a foothold in the Balkans. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungarian forces began on July 29, 1878, and was completed by October 20 of the same year. The Austro-Hungarian Army faced fierce resistance from elements of both the Muslim and Orthodox populations, with significant battles taking place near Čitluk, Stolac, Livno and Klobuk. Despite setbacks, Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878.

Austria-Hungary's rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina lasted for three decades until 1908, when the Empire formally annexed the occupied zone, establishing the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of Austria and Hungary. This annexation, known as the Bosnian Crisis, upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and provoked protestations from Serbia and Montenegro, as well as from the Great Powers. The annexation was a unilateral action, timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. This action damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy and Russia, and laid the groundwork for World War I.

In addition to Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Austro-Hungarian Empire also had a presence in other parts of the Balkans. The Sandžak-Raška/Novibazar region was under Austro-Hungarian occupation from 1878 to 1909, when it was returned to the Ottoman Empire before being divided between the kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia. The Empire also stationed troops in Bosnia in 1878 to prevent Russian expansion into nearby Serbia. Furthermore, Austria-Hungary formed alliances with other powers in the region, such as the Mediterranean Entente with Britain and Italy in 1887, and mutual defence pacts with Germany in 1879 and Romania in 1883.

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Turks set up a formal government and expanded their territory under the leadership of Osman I, Orhan, Murad I, and Bayezid I. In 1453, Mehmed II the Conqueror led the Ottoman Turks in seizing Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire's 1,000-year reign. Mehmed renamed Constantinople "Istanbul" and made it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Under Selim I (r. 1512-1520) and his son, Süleyman I (the Magnificent) (r. 1520-1566), the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent. Süleyman took control of parts of Persia, most of Arabia, and large sections of Hungary and the Balkans. By the early 16th century, the Ottomans had also defeated the Mamlūk dynasty in Syria and Egypt, and their navy under Barbarossa soon seized control of much of the Barbary Coast.

World War I

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a major player in the events that led to the outbreak of World War I. The empire was a multinational state in Central and Southern Europe, formed by the constitutional Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 between Austria and Hungary. It was a unique dual monarchy, with a rich mix of people and cultures, and was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty. The empire was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third most populous.

The origins of the empire can be traced back to 1526 when an Austrian Habsburg became King of Hungary. However, the dual monarchy was established much later, in 1867, when the Hungarians pushed for a return to their more independent status. The Ausgleich Compromise gave Hungary near-complete autonomy over its internal affairs, while the Austrian Emperor, Franz Joseph, continued to be the King of Hungary. The two states were considered a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, such as diplomacy.

The empire's political organisation was complex and unusual, with each monarchy continuing to exist with a degree of autonomy, its own parliament, prime ministers, cabinet, and domestic self-government. The central government was responsible for matters of foreign policy, military command, and joint finance. The central government was comprised of the emperor, both prime ministers, three appointed ministers, members of the aristocracy, and representatives of the military.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a relatively young nation-state, but like Germany, it was rapidly modernising and ruled by ambitious militarists and industrialists with keen expansionist interests, particularly in the Balkans. This created rivalry and tension with neighbouring Russia, which considered itself the protector of the Slavs and Orthodox Christians in the Balkans.

The assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, by a Serb nationalist on 28 June 1914, was the spark that started World War I. Austro-Hungarian officials blamed Serbia for the assassination and used it to justify declaring war on Serbia. This, in turn, set off a series of counter-mobilisations as Russia mobilised in support of Serbia, leading to the start of World War I within a month.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire faced several challenges during the war, including nationalism, disunity, and economic stagnation. The empire's military might was also undermined by internal political and ethnic divisions, such as language barriers between officers and soldiers. Despite these difficulties, the empire's military was professional and well-equipped. However, underdog Serbia defeated the initial invasion in 1914, and it was only with a German-led invasion the following year that they succeeded.

The war eventually shifted in favour of Austria-Hungary's enemies, and internal unrest grew as various ethnic groups within the empire demanded independence. The empire's military gradually deteriorated, and Emperor Franz Joseph died in November 1916, leaving the young Emperor Karl I to assume the throne for the remainder of the war. Karl attempted to reform the empire into a federalist state and negotiate with the Allies, but he was unsuccessful. In late 1918, various new states across the empire began to proclaim their independence, and by 1919, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had ceased to exist. The Treaties of St. Germain and Trianon officially confirmed the empire's dissolution.

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