The Austrian Succession: A Complex War's Origins

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) was a conflict caused by the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the Austrian Habsburg crown following the death of her father, Emperor Charles VI. France, Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony saw it as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power, while Maria Theresa was backed by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Hanover. The war included the First and Second Silesian Wars in central Europe, as well as colonial conflicts between Britain and France in India and North America. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which recognised Maria Theresa as ruler but failed to resolve underlying tensions.

The death of Emperor Charles VI

Emperor Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, died on 20 October 1740. His death was the immediate cause of the War of the Austrian Succession, which lasted from 1740 to 1748.

Charles VI was the last male Habsburg heir in the direct line. Due to the Salic law, his lands would be divided upon his death as he had no male heirs. In response, he issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which abolished male-only succession in all Habsburg realms and declared their lands indivisible. This was a unilateral decision, ignoring the Mutual Pact of Succession he had previously signed.

Charles had three daughters: Maria Theresa, Maria Anna, and Maria Amalia. When Maria Theresa was born, he disinherited his nieces, who were the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph I. This act undermined the possibility of a smooth succession and forced Charles to seek approval for the Pragmatic Sanction from other European powers. In return for their recognition of the sanction, Charles agreed to a British demand to close the Ostend Company, a trading company based in the Austrian Netherlands.

Eventually, the states of Great Britain, France, Saxony-Poland, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Venice, the Papal States, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Savoy-Sardinia, and Bavaria, plus the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, recognised the sanction. However, France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria, and Prussia later reneged on their recognition.

At the time of his death, the Habsburg lands were heavily in debt, with only 100,000 florins in the exchequer. Austria's army was spread across the Empire in small, ineffective barracks, and desertion was common. Despite these issues, Charles VI had expanded the territorial extent of the Habsburg lands, which reached their greatest extent since the days of Emperor Charles V, stretching to the Southern Mediterranean and including the Duchy of Milan.

Following Charles VI's death, his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, assumed the throne. However, her succession was challenged by Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain, Saxony, and Poland, who were all party to the Pragmatic Sanction. They assaulted the Austrian frontier just weeks after Charles VI's death, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession.

The right of Maria Theresa to inherit the Habsburg lands

Maria Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg lands was challenged by several European powers, including France, Prussia, Bavaria, and Spain. This challenge led to the War of the Austrian Succession, which lasted from 1740 to 1748.

Maria Theresa's father, Emperor Charles VI, issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which placed his daughters before his nieces in the line of succession. This was a significant move as Charles was the last surviving male member of the House of Habsburg, and he hoped for a son to continue his dynasty. However, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him, and he never managed to overcome this feeling. Despite this, Charles spent his entire reign securing Maria Theresa's inheritance through international diplomacy.

The Pragmatic Sanction was recognised by several European powers, including Great Britain, France, Saxony, the United Provinces, Spain, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sardinia, Bavaria, and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire. However, France, Spain, Saxony, Bavaria, and Prussia later reneged on their recognition.

Upon Charles VI's death in 1740, Maria Theresa assumed the throne, becoming the ruler of the Habsburg dominions. Her succession was based on the Pragmatic Sanction, which allowed female succession to the Habsburg domains. However, this was challenged by several European powers who coveted parts of the Habsburg territories.

The immediate trigger for the War of the Austrian Succession was the invasion of Silesia, a wealthy Habsburg province, by King Frederick II of Prussia in December 1740. Frederick demanded that Maria Theresa cede Silesia to him and threatened to join her enemies if she refused. Maria Theresa refused and decided to fight for the province, leading to the First Silesian War.

During the war, Maria Theresa successfully defended her rule over most of the Habsburg monarchy, except for the loss of Silesia and a few minor territories in Italy. The war concluded with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which recognised Maria Theresa as the ruler of the Austrian Netherlands. However, Prussia retained control of Silesia.

Maria Theresa's determination to defend her inheritance and her successful leadership during the war secured her position as a strong and capable ruler. She implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria's military and bureaucratic efficiency and worked to modernise the state and improve its international standing.

The invasion of Silesia by Prussia

Silesia was an attractive target for Prussia due to its large population, industrial output, and military recruits. Additionally, its location in Central Europe enhanced its geostrategic importance. By controlling Silesia, Prussia could threaten its neighbours and limit the influence of neighbouring powers such as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Russian Empire within Germany.

The invasion of Silesia was not just a strategic move but also had dynastic implications. The Kingdom of Prussia's ruling House of Hohenzollern held dynastic claims to several duchies within the Habsburg province of Silesia. These claims were based on inheritance treaties dating back to 1537. However, the Habsburgs had previously rejected these claims, and the Hohenzollerns were determined to assert their rights.

The timing of the invasion was influenced by the death of Emperor Charles VI in October 1740, which left the Habsburg monarchy without a male heir. Charles had established the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which allowed his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, to succeed him. However, Prussia, along with Bavaria and Saxony, disputed Maria Theresa's right to the throne, arguing that the Pragmatic Sanction did not apply to Silesia.

By the end of January 1741, almost the entirety of Silesia was under Prussian control. The remaining Austrian strongholds of Glogau, Brieg, and Neisse were besieged. In March, an Austrian force relieved the siege of Neisse, but they were defeated by the Prussians at the Battle of Mollwitz in April. This victory secured Prussian control of the region and demonstrated the weakness of the Habsburg defences.

The invasion of Silesia had far-reaching consequences. It emboldened other powers, such as Bavaria, Saxony, France, Naples, and Spain, to attack Austria on multiple fronts, widening the conflict into the War of the Austrian Succession. Despite initial successes, Prussia faced a united front from the Austrians and their British-Hanoverian allies, who eventually drove back the Prussian forces.

The First Silesian War ended with the Treaty of Breslau in 1742, which ceded most of Silesia to Prussia, while Austria retained a small portion in the south. However, the conflict over Silesia remained unresolved, and the Second Silesian War broke out in 1744, with Prussia once again invading Bohemia and ultimately achieving victory. The Treaty of Dresden in 1745 confirmed Prussia's control of Silesia, and the region's borders were returned to the status quo ante bellum.

The conflict between Britain and France over colonial possessions

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) involved conflict in Europe, North America and India. The conflict between Britain and France over colonial possessions was part of a wider imperial and commercial rivalry between the two powers.

In North America, Britain and France clashed in what became known as King George's War (1744-48). The war centred on the struggle for control of the North American continent, with French colonial troops and their Native American allies carrying out frequent raids on British targets. In response, British colonists organised expeditions against New France, the most significant of which was the capture of the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. A French expedition to recover Louisbourg the following year failed due to bad weather, disease, and the death of its commander.

In India, Britain and France fought the First Carnatic War (1744-48). The war began with the arrival of a French naval squadron carrying troops from France. In September 1746, the French landed their troops near Madras and laid siege to the port. Although it was the main British settlement in the Carnatic, it was weakly fortified and had only a small garrison. Madras surrendered on 10 September, just six days after the arrival of the French force. The Nawab of the Carnatic, Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan, intervened in support of the British and advanced to retake Madras, but his army was easily and bloodily crushed by the French. The French then turned their attention to the remaining British settlement in the Carnatic, Fort St. David at Cuddalore. Early in 1747, a second French expedition laid siege to Fort St David but withdrew when a British naval squadron arrived in March. A final attempt in June 1748 saw the French routed by the British garrison. With the arrival of further British naval reinforcements, the British went on the offensive, laying siege to Pondichéry. However, despite a considerable superiority in numbers, the British were unable to capture the settlement, and the siege was abandoned after two months.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in October 1748, ended the war but failed to resolve underlying tensions between the signatories. Britain and France continued to vie for colonial possessions, and their conflict would soon break out again in the Seven Years' War (1756-63).

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The treaty failed to resolve the issues that had caused the war, and most of the signatories were left dissatisfied with the terms. Maria Theresa, for instance, resented Austria's exclusion from the talks and blamed Britain for forcing her to accept concessions. Britain, meanwhile, felt it had received little benefit for the financial subsidies paid to Austria. These issues, combined with other factors, led to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756.

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