France-Austria-Prussia: The Spark That Ignited War

The war between France and Austria-Prussia was caused by a complex interplay of factors, including rising nationalism, imperial ambitions, and strategic alliances. The immediate trigger for the conflict was the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which both powers had conquered from Denmark. However, the roots of the conflict lay in the broader rivalry between Austria and Prussia for dominance over the German states and the wider European continent.

Prussia, under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, sought to unify the German states under its control and establish itself as a major power in Europe. In contrast, Austria, ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph I, aimed to maintain its influence over the German territories and protect its position in the Danubian region. The conflict was further exacerbated by the involvement of other European powers, such as Italy, which sought to further its own unification process, and France, which aimed to reassert its dominance on the continent.

The war erupted in 1866, with Prussia invading Austrian-controlled Holstein and ultimately achieving a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgrätz. This resulted in a shift in power among the German states, with Prussia establishing hegemony and forming the North German Confederation, excluding Austria. The war also had wider repercussions, including the Italian annexation of Venetia and the strengthening of Prussian dominance over the German states.

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866

The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia was aided by the Kingdom of Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The war was part of a wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

The war was sparked by a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis began on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested against the Austrian Governor of Holstein's decision to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, claiming that this breached the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria responded on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. In March, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia, and Prussia responded with a partial mobilisation of five divisions.

Prussia's Minister President, Otto von Bismarck, formed an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months. This incentivised Bismarck to go to war with Austria within that timeframe, so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded by mobilising its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilisation on 26 April, and Austria ordered its own general mobilisation the next day.

On 1 June, Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet and decided to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June. Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilisation against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony, and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. The Prussian Chief of General Staff, Helmuth von Moltke, had meticulously planned for the war. He rapidly mobilised the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July. The victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July, and a preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg.

The war ended with a shift in power among the German states from Austrian to Prussian hegemony. It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all the northern German states in the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and the other southern German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia. Prussia's victory enabled it to organise the North German Confederation and exclude Austria from German affairs.

The dispute over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein

The conflict over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein was a complex issue that played a pivotal role in the war between France and Austria-Prussia. To understand this dispute, we need to go back to the Second Schleswig War in 1864 between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. This war resulted in the defeat of Denmark, and the subsequent agreement between Prussia and Austria to jointly occupy the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had a majority German population.

However, tensions arose between Prussia and Austria regarding the governance of these territories. On January 26, 1866, Prussia protested against the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to allow the estates of the duchies to call for a united assembly. Prussia saw this as a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty, while Austria asserted its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. The situation escalated with both sides reinforcing their troops along their shared frontier.

Prussia, led by Minister President Otto von Bismarck, formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. This alliance was a strategic move by Bismarck to divert Austrian strength and gain an advantage over Austria. The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein continued to intensify, and on June 1, 1866, Austria brought the matter before the German Diet. Prussia responded by invading Holstein on June 9, claiming that the Gastein Convention of August 14, 1865, had been nullified.

The German Diet responded by voting for partial mobilisation against Prussia, which Bismarck used as a pretext to declare the end of the German Confederation. Prussia proceeded to invade Hanover, Saxony, and the Electorate of Hesse on June 15. Italy also entered the conflict, declaring war on Austria on June 20. The dispute over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein had now escalated into a full-scale war between Prussia and Austria, with their respective allies.

The war ultimately resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and a shift in power away from Austria. The major outcome was the abolition of the German Confederation and the formation of the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and the southern German states. The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein was a critical factor in the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia, which had far-reaching consequences for the region.

The rivalry between Austria and Prussia

The rivalry between the two powers can be traced back to the middle of the 18th century, when they first met in the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War. However, the conflict culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

The war between Austria and Prussia was caused by a dispute over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which both had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring it a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria, on the other hand, asserted that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. The situation escalated, and both sides began to mobilise their armies. Prussia formed an alliance with Italy, which further incentivised Bismarck to go to war with Austria.

The Prussian army, led by Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke, had several advantages over the Austrian army. Firstly, the Prussian army was locally based and had a more extensive railway system, allowing for quicker mobilisation and concentration of troops. Secondly, the Prussian army had better armaments, including the Dreyse needle gun, which could be fired faster than the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles. Finally, the Prussian conscript service was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army, where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave.

The Austro-Prussian War resulted in a shift in power among the German states away from Austria and towards Prussia. It led to the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all the northern German states in the North German Confederation, which excluded Austria. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia.

The Ems Dispatch

The actual events that led to the Ems Dispatch unfolded as follows:

On the 13th of July 1870, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was stopped by Count Vincent Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia, during his morning stroll in the park. Benedetti had been instructed by his superior, Foreign Minister Agenor, to present France's demand that the king should guarantee that he would never again permit the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince to the Spanish throne. In addition, Benedetti asked for a letter from King Wilhelm to Napoleon III that would amount to a personal apology for the matter. The meeting was informal and took place on the promenade with the King's entourage at a discreet distance. The King refused politely but firmly, stating that it was "neither right nor possible to undertake commitments of this kind à tout jamais (forever)".

Privy Legation Councillor of the North German Confederation's Foreign Office, Heinrich Abeken, wrote an account of the event for Otto von Bismarck in Berlin. Wilhelm described Benedetti as "annoyingly persistent". He then asked Bismarck to release an account of the events to the press. Bismarck had full liberty to do so and decided to use some of Abeken's wording for his press release. However, he removed Wilhelm's conciliatory phrases and emphasised the real issue—the French had made certain demands under the threat of war, and Wilhelm had refused them.

Bismarck's text, released on the evening of the same day to the media and foreign embassies, was intentionally designed to give the impression that both parties had insulted each other. The French translation by the agency Havas further misinterpreted the text, implying that the King had deliberately insulted the ambassador by choosing a non-commissioned officer to carry the message to him. This version was printed by most newspapers the following day, which happened to be July 14 (Bastille Day in France), setting the tone for the public in both France and Germany.

The Prussian annexation of several German states

The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony. It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other southern German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia.

The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilisation of five divisions on 28 March.

The Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with a mobilisation of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilisation on 26 April and Austria ordered its own general mobilisation the next day. Prussia's general mobilisation orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilisation against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

The war ended with the decisive Prussian victory at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg.

The Treaty of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in the future, since Austria felt threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics (since Austria was now excluded from Germany and no longer the top German power). The northern states protested against their annexation to the Hohenzollern monarchy, and both the deposed rulers and the local population lamented the loss of their nation's sovereignty.

The four German states annexed by Prussia were the Kingdom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau, and the Free City of Frankfurt.

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