Franco-Austrian War: Origins Of Conflict

The Franco-Austrian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence, was fought by the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859. The war played a crucial role in the Italian Unification process. The conflict was sparked by the Kingdom of Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy, with France agreeing to provide military support in return for territorial compensation. The war culminated in Austrian defeats at the battles of Magenta and Solferino, resulting in the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca and the cession of Lombardy to France, which was subsequently given to Sardinia.

The Plombières Agreement

The agreement was an important step towards Italian unification, which was achieved within ten years of the meeting. It was also a significant development in the efforts of Cavour to expel Austrian forces from the Italian peninsula. Cavour sought to lift the burden of Austrian rule from Italians, and he recognised the need for allies after Austria defeated Piedmont-Sardinia in the First Italian War of Independence.

Napoleon III was also keen to settle the "Italian question" and to revise the humiliations of the 1815 Congress of Vienna. He believed that a war against Austria could bring military success and glory to France, and he was sympathetic to Italian unification under the House of Savoy. However, he did not want to support a revolutionary cause, and he wanted to ensure that any war could be justified in diplomatic terms and before public opinion in France and Europe.

In the agreement, France pledged to support Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy in return for territorial compensation. This compensation would come in the form of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice. The two states signed a military alliance in January 1859, agreeing to a combined army of 160,000 men, with 50,000 from each state and 60,000 from other Italian states.

The agreement also included a plan to provoke Austria into declaring war on Piedmont-Sardinia. This plan involved provoking an appeal from the citizens of the Duchy of Modena and Reggio for protection from the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, which would then lead to a series of diplomatic manoeuvres resulting in war.

The agreement further outlined a political structure for the Italian peninsula following the removal of Austria. It was agreed that the existing Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, along with the Po Valley and the northern part of the Papal States, would become the Kingdom of Upper Italy under the King of Piedmont-Sardinia. The southern part of the Papal States would merge with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to create a Kingdom of Central Italy. Rome and its surroundings would continue to be ruled by the Pope. Further south, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies would remain under the control of its existing king. These four Italian states would form a confederation, with the Pope as the honorary president.

Austrian ultimatum to Sardinia

On the 23rd of April 1859, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Sardinia, demanding the demobilization of its troops. This ultimatum was issued in response to a provocative speech made by King Victor Emmanuel II in support of Italian unification. Austria found this speech insulting and unacceptable, and so demanded that Sardinia stand down its troops.

Sardinia, however, rejected the ultimatum. Piedmont, a region in the northern Italian kingdom of Sardinia, had already begun to mobilize its forces. Sardinia was also confident that it had the support of France, with whom they had signed a military alliance in January 1859. In the Plombières Agreement, France had agreed to support Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy in exchange for territorial compensation.

Austria, under Emperor Franz Joseph I, declared war on the 26th of April, three days after issuing the ultimatum. The first French troops entered Piedmont on the 25th of April, and France officially declared war on Austria on the 3rd of May.

The Austrian invasion of Sardinia was stopped by the arrival of French troops in Piedmont in late April. The Franco-Sardinian allies went on to defeat the Austrian armies at the Battle of Magenta on the 4th of June and the Battle of Solferino on the 24th of June, resulting in the end of the war and the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on the 12th of July.

French troops enter Piedmont

The Franco-Austrian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence, was fought by the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859. The war played a crucial role in the Italian Unification process.

The first French troops entered Piedmont on 25 April 1859, and France declared war on Austria on 3 May. The French army for the Italian campaign was made up of 170,000 soldiers, 2,000 horsemen, and 312 guns, constituting half of the entire French army. The army was divided into five corps, each led by a commander. The troops were transported to Piedmont in the first massive military use of railways.

The French forces arrived in Piedmont to support Sardinia in its war against Austria. The Sardinian army had mobilised on 9 March 1859, and Austria mobilised on 9 April, issuing an ultimatum demanding the Sardinian army's demobilisation. When Sardinia refused, Austria started the war on 26 April. The arrival of French troops in Piedmont halted the Austrian invasion, and the war ended with the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on 12 July.

The French troops' entry into Piedmont was a significant turning point in the war, as it prevented a swift Austrian victory and allowed the Sardinian army to regroup and counter-attack. The French forces played a crucial role in the subsequent battles, including Magenta and Solferino, which ultimately led to the defeat of the Austrian army and the unification of Italy under the House of Savoy.

Battles of Magenta and Solferino

The Battles of Magenta and Solferino were fought during the Second Italian War of Independence, also known as the Austro-Sardinian War, the Franco-Austrian War, or the Italian War of 1859. The war was fought by the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859 and played a crucial role in the Italian Unification process.

Battle of Magenta

The Battle of Magenta took place on 4 June 1859 near the town of Magenta in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, a crown land of the Austrian Empire. The French-Sardinian alliance, led by Napoleon III, emerged victorious against the Austrians under Marshal Ferenc Gyulay. Napoleon III's army crossed the Ticino River and outflanked the Austrian right, forcing the Austrian army to retreat. The French and Piedmontese pursued the Austrian 2nd Army to the Ticino River, the border between Lombardy and Piedmont. The confined nature of the terrain, divided by rivers, canals, and orchards, made large manoeuvres impossible, and the battle was fought at close quarters with bayonet, sword, and fighting spirit. The town of Magenta was heavily fortified, and each house had to be cleared in a series of bloody encounters. The French troops under General Patrice de MacMahon, who had initially been repulsed, rallied and assaulted the town, ultimately claiming victory.

Battle of Solferino

The Battle of Solferino, fought on 24 June 1859, was a bloody encounter between the advancing First Corps under Marshal Baraguey-d'Hilliers and the Austrian 8th Corps defending the pullback at Melegnano (Marignano). The French and Piedmontese blundered into the Austrian forces, who were stationed along the line of the Mincio River, ready to counter-attack. The battle lasted 15 hours, with both sides suffering heavy casualties: 20,000 on the Austrian side and 18,000 on the French side. The French ultimately emerged victorious, and the Austrian Emperor was driven to negotiate, leading to an armistice on 8 July and an imperial summit on 11 July 1859.

Austria cedes Lombardy

The Franco-Austrian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence, was fought between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859. The war played a crucial role in the Italian Unification process.

Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which then immediately passed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia. This was a result of the Franco-Sardinian victory at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June 1859, which ended the war and led to the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on 12 July. The Treaty of Zurich, signed on 10 November 1859, confirmed the transfer of most of Lombardy, with its capital, Milan, to France, which would cede the territories to Sardinia.

The loss of Lombardy, along with the defeat in the Battle of Solferino, severely weakened Austria's influence in Italy and challenged its status as a great power in Europe. The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, which included Lombardy, had been a constituent land of the Austrian Empire since its creation in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna. The loss of Lombardy in 1859 marked the end of Austrian rule in this region and was a significant step towards the unification of Italy.

The cession of Lombardy to France and its subsequent transfer to Sardinia was part of a broader agreement between France and Sardinia. According to the Plombières Agreement, France had committed to supporting Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy in exchange for territorial compensation. This agreement ultimately served the Sardinian-Piedmontese plan for the unification of the Italian Peninsula under the House of Savoy.

The transfer of Lombardy was formalised in the Treaty of Zurich, which consisted of two parallel treaties: one between Austria and France and the other between Austria, Sardinia, and France. The treaty carefully described the boundary between the territory to be transferred and the remaining Austrian lands. While the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera were excluded from the transfer, the majority of Lombardy was ceded, marking a significant shift in the balance of power in the region.

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