Concerns Of Germany And Austria-Hungary: What Were The Reasons?

The causes of World War I are complex and multi-faceted, but one of the key factors was the system of alliances that existed between the major European powers in the years leading up to the conflict. This system of alliances pitted two rival blocs against each other: the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia, and Britain, and the Triple Alliance, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

The origins of these alliances can be traced back to the late 19th century, when the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871 upset the balance of power in Europe. This led to fears among other European powers, particularly France, which had been defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 and lost the regions of Alsace-Lorraine to the new German Empire. As a result, France sought alliances with other powers to counter the growing strength of Germany.

In 1894, France and Russia formed an alliance, which was further strengthened by the Entente Cordiale between France and Britain in 1904. This grouping became known as the Triple Entente. Meanwhile, Germany, seeking to counter the threat posed by the Franco-Russian alliance, formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy.

The rivalry between these two blocs was further exacerbated by conflicting ambitions in South-Eastern Europe, particularly between Austria-Hungary and Russia. Austria-Hungary, fearing the loss of its status as a Great Power, sought to crush Serbia, which it saw as a threat to its dominance in the Balkans. Russia, on the other hand, supported Serbia and sought to maintain its influence in the region.

Germany, caught between these two rivals, ultimately chose to side with Austria-Hungary due to its shared cultural and linguistic ties, as well as a desire to maintain the balance of power in Europe. However, this decision ultimately backfired, as it led to the outbreak of World War I in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian-backed terrorist.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The assassination of the Archduke and his wife by Gavrilo Princip, a young pro-Serbian activist from Bosnia, gave the military high command the opportunity they sought to declare war on Serbia. Their ultimatum to Serbia and their subsequent decision for war in 1914 — encouraged to some extent by German military leaders — impacted the lives of millions of people around the world. And contrary to what the military expected, Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia did not remain a localized conflict. Serbia’s ally Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the latter’s ally Germany declared war on Russia and then on France, Russia’s Entente ally. When German troops crossed into neutral Belgium in their march on France, Great Britain declared war on both Germany and Austria-Hungary, ostensibly to protect Belgian neutrality. Later, Austria-Hungary’s neighbors and near neighbors Italy, Montenegro, Romania, and Greece joined the Entente forces while Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Austria-Hungary and Germany.

The Triple Entente

The Entente, in operation, did not necessarily fix a permanent division into two opposing power blocs. The situation remained flexible. The alignment of the Russian Empire with Europe's two largest power centres was controversial on both sides. Many Russian conservatives distrusted the secular French and recalled British past diplomatic manoeuvres to block Russian influence in the Near East. In turn, prominent French and British journalists, academics, and parliamentarians found the reactionary tsarist regime distasteful.

The Franco-Russian Alliance

The alliance was a response to the formation of a military bloc (the Triple Alliance) headed by Germany. In Europe, two opposing hostile imperialist blocs had formed. The Franco-Russian Alliance was a mutual agreement to preserve peace and to meet the necessities of a defensive war. If France was attacked by Germany, or by Italy supported by Germany, Russia would employ all her available forces to attack Germany. The same would happen if Russia was attacked by Germany, or by Austria supported by Germany.

The alliance was also a result of the series of unfortunate events that had befallen both France and Russia, which left the two governments seeking support. The French and Russian diplomats began a dialogue that resulted in the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894. France gained an ally with the largest resource of manpower on the European continent, while Russia became a more influential player in European politics. As the relationship warmed, French government and business interests invested much-needed capital in Russian projects such as the Trans-Siberian Railroad. The fears that both governments had concerning the threat of German imperialism were somewhat allayed.

The alliance was also a response to the unification of Germany, combined with its naval expansion, overt declarations of its colonial ambitions, and its conclusion of the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. The unification of Germany, combined with its other actions, roused Great Britain from its self-imposed period of "splendid isolation" during the late 19th century. Despite fighting side by side with Prussia during the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, and the fact that Queen Victoria and her son Edward VII were related by blood to the German royal House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the British perspective was pragmatic. Formerly bitter enemies, the British and French realised that their mutual interests were served with the containment of an imperialistic Germany.

The alliance was also a response to the German "Blank Cheque" of 1914. In July 1914, the German government reassured Austria-Hungary of its support. The German ambassador to Austria-Hungary, Heinrich von Tschirschky, stated that it was his estimate that Emperor Wilhelm II would support resolute, well-thought-out action by Austria-Hungary with regard to Serbia. On 3 July, the Saxon military attaché in Berlin reported that the German General Staff "would be pleased if war were to come about now" as Germany was more prepared for war than either Russia or France. On 4 July, Wilhelm II came to share the views of the German General Staff and declared that he was entirely for "settling accounts with Serbia". He ordered the German ambassador in Vienna, Count Heinrich von Tschirschky, to stop advising restraint, writing that "Tschirschky will be so good to drop this nonsense. We must finish with the Serbs, quickly. Now or never!".

The Triple Alliance

The alliance was chiefly the brainchild of Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany. His primary goal was to preserve the status quo in Europe after he had unified Germany in 1871. He was particularly concerned about France finding allies to help it regain Alsace-Lorraine. By promising to aid Austria-Hungary and Italy in the event of an attack, Bismarck sought to make them somewhat dependent on Germany and therefore unsympathetic to French adventures.

The alliance was a defensive pact, with each member promising mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral.

When the treaty was renewed in February 1887, Italy gained an empty promise of German support for Italian colonial ambitions in North Africa in return for Italy's continued friendship. Austria-Hungary had to be pressured by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck into accepting the principles of consultation and mutual agreement with Italy on any territorial changes initiated in the Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in that region despite the treaty.

In 1891, attempts were made to join Britain to the Triple Alliance, which, though unsuccessful, were widely believed to have succeeded in Russian diplomatic circles.

In 1902, Italy secretly extended a similar guarantee to France. By a particular agreement, neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy would change the status quo in the Balkans without previous consultation.

On October 18, 1883, Carol I of Romania, through his Prime Minister Ion C. Brătianu, had also secretly pledged to support the Triple Alliance, but he later remained neutral in the First World War due to viewing Austria-Hungary as the aggressor.

In 1914, Austria-Hungary sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia, to demonstrate its own strength and to dampen Serbian support for Yugoslav nationalism, viewing it as a threat to the unity of its multi-national empire. However, Vienna, wary of the reaction of Russia (a major supporter of Serbia), sought a guarantee from its ally, Germany, that Berlin would support Austria in any conflict. Germany guaranteed its support through what came to be known as the "blank cheque", but urged Austria-Hungary to attack quickly to localize the war and avoid drawing in Russia.

In 1915, with considerable German assistance, Austria-Hungary won back most of Galicia and prevented a Russian advance in Bukovina. Together, German and Austro-Hungarian forces even conquered and occupied much of Russian Poland and the Baltic. Also in 1915, Austria-Hungary managed to conquer and occupy Serbia, as two new allies had joined the Balkan front on the side of the Central Powers: Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire.

The Balkan Question

The Balkan region, which comprises modern-day countries such as Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, was mostly under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The people of the Balkans demanded their freedom and political rights. The Balkan states also wanted to capture more territories, which led to the power of rivalry. European powers were conflicted as other countries such as England, Russia, Germany, and Austro-Hungary wanted to capture the Balkan.

The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its Central European possessions, including those portions of Hungary which it had occupied. Its westward expansion arrested, the Ottoman Empire never again posed a serious threat to Austria, which became the dominant power in its region of Europe. The Eastern Question did not truly develop until the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century.

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