The Austrian Succession: Power, Politics, And Intrigue

The War of the Austrian Succession was a conflict that took place from 1740 to 1748 between various European powers. The war was caused by a succession crisis that occurred upon the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740. Charles VI's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, assumed the throne, but her succession was challenged by France, Prussia, Bavaria, and Spain. Maria Theresa was supported by Britain, Hanover, and the Dutch Republic. The war included the First and Second Silesian Wars in Central Europe and a separate conflict between Britain and Spain, known as the War of Jenkins' Ear. The imperial and commercial rivalry between Britain and France played a significant role in the war, as they struggled for control of North America and clashed in India during the First Carnatic War. The war proved disastrous for both Britain and France and ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which preserved the bulk of the Austrian inheritance for Maria Theresa.

The death of Emperor Charles VI

Emperor Charles VI died on 20 October 1740, after a hunting trip across the Hungarian border. He fell ill at the Favorita Palace in Vienna and passed away at the Hofburg. Voltaire wrote in his Memoirs that the emperor's death was caused by the consumption of death cap mushrooms.

Charles VI was the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1711 until his death. He was the second son of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I and his third wife, Princess Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg. Charles was also known as Charles III when he declared himself King of Spain following the death of Carlos II in 1700.

Charles VI's death sparked the War of the Austrian Succession, which plagued his successor, Maria Theresa, for eight years. The war was a European conflict fought between 1740 and 1748, primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. The immediate cause of the war was the right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father as ruler of the Habsburg Monarchy.

In 1713, Charles VI issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which abolished male-only succession in all Habsburg realms and declared their lands indivisible. This was because he lacked a male heir and wanted to ensure his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, could succeed him. However, this act undermined the chances of a smooth succession and obliged Charles to seek approval from other European powers for the rest of his reign. Despite his efforts, several states reneged on their recognition of the sanction.

At the time of Charles VI's death, the Habsburg lands were facing significant financial issues, with contemporaries predicting that Hungary would break free from Habsburg rule. Additionally, Austria's army was spread across the Empire in small, ineffective barracks, making the country vulnerable to foreign invasion.

The right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father

Maria Theresa's right to succeed her father, Emperor Charles VI, as ruler of the Habsburg monarchy was the pretext for the War of the Austrian Succession. Charles VI had issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which confirmed the principle of female inheritance, placing the rights of his own children before those of his nieces.

However, Salic law excluded women from the inheritance, and this agreement required the approval of the various Habsburg territories and the Imperial Diet. Charles VI spent his entire reign securing international recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction through diplomacy. By the time of his death in 1740, Great Britain, France, Saxony, the United Provinces, Spain, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sardinia, Bavaria, and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire had recognised the sanction.

Despite this, upon Charles VI's death, several European sovereigns who had recognised Maria Theresa as heir broke their promises. Queen Elisabeth of Spain and Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, married to Maria Theresa's cousin, coveted portions of her inheritance. Maria Theresa's right to succeed her father was further challenged by Prussia, Bavaria, and France, who invaded her lands and sought to acquire Habsburg possessions for themselves and diminish Austrian power.

The conflict eventually saw Prussia ally itself with France, Bavaria, Spain, Sweden, and Saxony. Ranged against them were Austria, Britain, the United Provinces, and Russia. The war ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which confirmed Maria Theresa as Austrian ruler, but also recognised Prussia's possession of Silesia.

The invasion of Silesia

The First Silesian War ended in a clear victory for Prussia, which secured some 35,000 square kilometres of new territory and around a million new subjects, greatly enhancing its resources and prestige. However, by twice making a separate peace while the War of the Austrian Succession raged on, Frederick abandoned his erstwhile allies in the League of Nymphenburg and earned a reputation for diplomatic unreliability and double-dealing.

The First Silesian War was followed by the Second and Third Silesian Wars, which were also won by Prussia, resulting in the confirmation of Prussia's sovereignty over Silesia.

The Battle of Dettingen

The battle was the last time a reigning British monarch personally led troops in combat. The Allied victory was largely due to the training and discipline of the British infantry, who stood their ground against French cavalry and artillery fire. The French suffered around 4,000-5,000 casualties, while the Allies suffered about half that number. Despite the victory, the Allies were forced to withdraw due to a lack of supplies, and the battle had little strategic impact on the wider war.

The Allied army was initially camped between Aschaffenburg and Kleinostheim, with King George II arriving to take command on 19 June. Meanwhile, the French had occupied the upper part of the River Main after Aschaffenburg, cutting off the Allied supply line from the east. The French also occupied Seligenstadt, cutting off the supply line from the other side. The Allied army was now trapped, facing possible starvation.

On the other side of the river, about 60,000 French troops were camped between Stockstadt and Seligenstadt. The French built two pontoon bridges to cross to the north and advance towards Dettingen, and placed artillery along the Main to control the road to Hanau. Noailles predicted that the Allies would attempt to retreat to Hanau, and planned to block their escape at Dettingen.

Just after midnight on 27 June, King George gave the order for the Allied army to decamp and begin its retreat. Noailles sent infantry to capture Aschaffenburg, while his main force, led by the Duke of Gramont, crossed the Main and moved towards Dettingen. Gramont's troops deployed with the swampy ravine at the edge of the village behind them, rather than in front as a natural obstacle to the enemy. This tactical error proved costly for the French.

By noon, both armies had taken their positions opposite each other, with two lines of infantry in the centre, flanked by cavalry. The battle began with a charge of the Maison du Roi (French Household Cavalry) and carabiniers on the Allied left. The lines of the British cavalry and infantry were pierced but managed to regroup. The left flank of the Allied army was being decimated by French artillery fire from across the Main.

The French Guards then advanced in line against the Allied infantry in the centre but were thrown into disorder and forced to retreat by British platoon fire. Meanwhile, French attacks against the Allied right were easily repulsed by British and Austrian cavalry. The Allies then pushed the retreating French through the bog, taking Dettingen.

The whole of the French army soon retreated in confusion towards the bridges and fords of the Main. One of the pontoon bridges broke, and the infantry plunged into the river, with many drowning in their panic. The French Guards were particularly criticised for their hasty retreat, and were mocked by the French public, who called them 'les canards du Main' ('the ducks of the Main').

The battle ended around 4 pm, but King George made no attempt to pursue the enemy. Instead, the Allied army retreated to the safety of Hanau. In Britain, there was rejoicing, and George's victory brought him much popularity. The battle demonstrated the fighting qualities of the British Army, but it had little strategic impact on the wider war, which soon shifted its focus to Flanders.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The treaty confirmed the right of the Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa to the Austrian lands, but the Habsburgs were seriously weakened by the guarantee to Prussia of its conquest of Silesia. The treaty also confirmed the right of succession of the House of Hanover in Great Britain and Hanover.

The treaty failed to resolve the issues that had caused the war, and most of the signatories were unhappy with the terms. Maria Theresa resented Austria's exclusion from the talks and blamed Britain for forcing her to accept concessions. British politicians felt they had received little benefit for the financial subsidies paid to Austria.

The treaty's failure to resolve the underlying tensions between the signatories, combined with other factors, led to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756.

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