Angola's Strategic Allies: Key Partners And Their Roles

Angola, a country in southwestern coastal Africa, has had a tumultuous history since gaining independence from Portugal in 1975. The country has endured civil war, corrupt elections, and Cold War-era ideological struggles. Angola's foreign relations have been influenced by its alignment with different global powers, its economic interests, and its participation in regional organisations. During the Cold War, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the Eastern Bloc, but following the collapse of the Soviet Union, it sought to improve relations with Western countries. Angola's economy is heavily dependent on oil exports, making it a significant player in the global energy market. The country has also been a strong advocate for multilateral cooperation and plays an active role in the United Nations and regional organisations such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union (AU). Angola's relations with its neighbours have been complex, with historical ties to countries like Namibia, Zambia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and a shared history of colonial rule with other Portuguese-speaking nations.

Angola's relationship with the US

The United States established diplomatic relations with Angola in 1993, marking a turning point in their relationship. Angola, independent from Portugal since 1975, had endured a 27-year civil war with various factions backed by global powers, including the US and the Soviet Union. The US has played a role in Angola's post-civil war recovery, working to remove landmines, promote environmental conservation, and assist war refugees and internally displaced people in returning to their homes.

US foreign policy goals in Angola are multifaceted. They include promoting and strengthening democratic institutions, fostering economic prosperity, improving healthcare, and consolidating peace and security, including maritime security. The US has provided assistance through the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program, offering professional military education opportunities and deploying military training teams to Angola to enhance medical readiness, maritime security, and English language capabilities.

Additionally, the US has focused on preventing major infectious diseases, strengthening health systems, and building the capacity of nongovernmental organizations working in health advocacy and service delivery in Angola. The two countries have signed a trade and investment framework agreement to promote greater trade and investment, with Angola being the third-largest trading partner of the US in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly due to its petroleum exports. Angola is also a partner country with Power Africa and eligible for preferential trade benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act.

Both nations are members of several international organizations, including the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization, further solidifying their relationship and shared interests.

Angola's relationship with Portugal

Angola and Portugal have a "profound" cultural and historical relationship that dates back to the arrival of Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão at the mouth of the Congo River in 1482. From the second half of the 16th century, Portugal consolidated its presence in Angola through the establishment of alliance policies with local kingdoms, the appointment of governors, and the founding of the city of São Paulo de Luanda. Angola became a colony of Portugal and was incorporated into the Portuguese Empire, with slavery as a major trade. Between 1580 and 1680, over a million people were shipped to Brazil as slaves.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, many African nations gained independence, and the winds of change also swept through Angola. The Portuguese Colonial Wars began in Angola in 1961 after revolts on coffee plantations left 50,000 Angolans dead. The war for independence lasted 13 years. On April 25, 1974, the Carnation Revolution, a peaceful leftist military coup d'état in Lisbon, ousted the incumbent Portuguese government. This led to a ceasefire agreement between the Portuguese government and Angolan liberation movements, and on November 11, 1975, Angola's independence was proclaimed, which Portugal recognized.

Despite the end of colonial rule, the relationship between Angola and Portugal has continued to evolve. In 1977, Portugal opened a resident embassy in Luanda, and in September 1987, Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos paid an official visit to Portugal, the first for an Angolan head of state. In July 1996, Angola and Portugal became founding members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. The financial crisis of 2007-2008 saw many Portuguese nationals emigrate to Angola, and in November 2011, the Portuguese government finalized a loan from the Angolan government to address its financial woes.

However, relations have also faced tensions, such as in 2013 when Angola threatened to end its special economic partnership with Portugal due to a money probe involving high-ranking Angolan leaders. In recent years, there have been efforts to repair and strengthen bilateral relations, with high-level visits and agreements in various fields, including cultural, economic, educational, and military cooperation.

Angola's relationship with China

Angola and China have had a long-standing relationship that predates Angola's independence. The relationship between the two countries has evolved over the years and is primarily based on trade and economic cooperation. As of 2021, Angola was China's third-largest trading partner in Africa, with bilateral trade valued at US$15.6 billion that year. Angola is a significant oil supplier to China, and in return, China has invested heavily in Angola's infrastructure.

During Angola's war of independence against Portugal in the 1960s and 1970s, China provided support to Angola's nationalist movements, initially backing the MPLA. However, as China's relationship with the Soviet Union deteriorated, and the MPLA's ties with the Soviets strengthened, China shifted its support to the FNLA and UNITA. After Angola gained independence, China struggled to normalise relations with the new MPLA government, but eventually, in 1982, the People's Republic of China announced its support for Angola's government and normalised relations in 1983.

In recent years, China has continued to invest in Angola's infrastructure, offering loans and development finance in exchange for reduced-price oil. For example, in 2006, Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao offered a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. This exchange of infrastructure for resources has enhanced Angola's fiscal capacity. Additionally, Chinese companies have a prominent presence in Angola, with over four hundred state and private Chinese companies operating in the country as of 2010.

The relationship between Angola and China extends beyond economic ties. There is a significant Chinese diaspora in Angola, with an estimated 53,000 Chinese citizens living and working in the country in 2016. Additionally, both countries participate in the Forum Macao, a multi-lateral group formed by China in 2003 to increase economic and commercial cooperation with Portuguese-speaking countries. The forum celebrates 20 years of existence in 2023, marking four decades of Angola-China bilateral relations.

Angola's relationship with Cuba

Cuba's relationship with Angola started in the 1960s as part of the “Second Revolution” movement announced by Fidel Castro. The movement intended to bring Marxism–Leninism to Africa, starting primarily in Zaire (today known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo).

Cuba's first informal contacts with the Marxist–Leninist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) dated back to the late 1950s. MPLA guerrillas received their first training from Cubans in Algiers starting in 1963, and Che Guevara met MPLA leader Agostinho Neto for high-level talks in 1965.

In 1975, Cuba sent combat troops to support the MPLA against the pro-Western National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) in the Angolan Civil War. This intervention, codenamed Operation Carlota, began on November 5, 1975, and proved critical in preventing the fall of Luanda to apartheid forces. By 1976, the Cuban military presence in Angola had grown to nearly 36,000 troops, and Cuban forces played a crucial role in defeating the FNLA in the north and UNITA in the south.

Cuba's involvement in Angola was driven by multiple factors. The intense opposition to the 1959 Cuban Revolution by the US led to the belief that the best defense was a good offense. A campaign in Africa was less likely to provoke a direct confrontation with the US, as Americans did not see Africa as part of their backyard. Additionally, the anti-racism stance of the Cuban Revolution, with its significant population of African descent, aligned with the anti-apartheid struggle.

The relationship between Cuba and Angola evolved beyond military cooperation. In the wake of Operation Carlota, Cuba deployed thousands of technical, medical, and educational staff to Angola to fill the gaps left by the departing Portuguese. Cuban doctors played a crucial role in the Angolan health system, and Cuban teachers and scholarships contributed to educational development. Cuban engineers, technicians, and construction workers also worked on repairing and developing Angola's infrastructure.

However, there were also tensions and discord between Cuba and Angola. Cuba's strategy advocated concentrating on countering UNITA, while the Soviets, who provided significant military aid, believed in developing a conventional Angolan army. Additionally, there were concerns about the systematic plundering of Angolan property by Cubans and the sense that Angolans were treated as second-class citizens in their own country.

In the late 1980s, Cuba and Angola collaborated in defending the town of Cuito Cuanavale against South African and UNITA troops. This battle proved to be a turning point, signaling the beginning of the end for apartheid forces. Subsequently, Cuba, Angola, and South Africa signed the Three Powers Accord in 1988, arranging for the withdrawal of South African troops from Angola and Namibia and the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.

Cuba's involvement in Angola had a profound impact, and it is the only foreign country represented on the Wall of Names in Pretoria, honoring those who lost their lives in the Angolan War.

Angola's relationship with the UK

The UK has an embassy in Luanda, Angola, and the Angolan government maintains an embassy in London. The UK government's website states that it works to develop relations between the two countries, dealing with political, economic, investment, trade, and security questions of interest to both nations. The UK also helps British nationals in Angola and processes visa applications for those wishing to visit the UK.

Angola has strong ties with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and the UK, as a former colonial power, is no exception. Angola's war for independence from Portugal was suspended due to a coup in Portugal that replaced the Caetano regime. Since then, Angola has embraced a pro-US and, to a lesser degree, pro-Europe foreign policy.

The UK has also provided funding to clear mines in Angola, protecting more than 50,000 people.

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