The Central Powers: Germany And Austria-Hungary's Alliance

Germany and Austria-Hungary formed a defensive alliance, known as the Dual Alliance, in 1879. This treaty was part of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances to preserve peace and prevent Germany's isolation in Europe. The two powers promised mutual support in the event of an attack by Russia and benevolent neutrality if either was attacked by another European power, which was generally understood to be France. This alliance was surprising to many, given the two nations' differing aims and sometimes rivalrous relationship, as well as their differences during the Austro-Prussian War. However, their shared distrust of Russia united them in this common defensive cause.

The Dual Alliance treaty

The Dual Alliance was formed after the collapse of the Three Emperors' League, which was an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The Three Emperors' League was discontinued due to rising tensions between Austria-Hungary and Russia over influence in the Balkans. In 1878, the Russian Empire defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, gaining considerable influence in the Balkans. This outraged Austria-Hungary, which had its own ambitions in the region. Bismarck attempted to play the role of a mediator and called for an international conference, the Congress of Berlin, to resolve the issue. However, despite his efforts, the conference ended up souring relations between Germany and Russia, and the Three Emperors' League collapsed.

Distrust of Russia

The Dual Alliance, formed on October 7, 1879, was a defensive pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary, in which both powers promised to support each other in the event of an attack by Russia. This alliance was surprising to many, as Germany and Austria-Hungary had previously been driven apart, notably during the Austro-Prussian War. However, their common distrust of Russia united the two empires.

The German Empire, formed in 1871, disturbed the old 'balance of power' in Europe. Germany's growing strength and pursuit of 'world power' status encouraged its rival powers to maintain mass armies through compulsory military service. This caused tensions to rise in Europe, with two rival alliances forming. Germany's alliance with Austria-Hungary was driven by their shared fear of Russia.

In 1878, Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, gaining considerable influence in the Balkans. This outraged Austria-Hungary, which was Russia's chief rival in the region. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck attempted to portray Germany as a peacemaker and preserve the European status quo, but the resulting Treaty of Berlin, which reversed Russia's gains, damaged Russo-German relations. This treaty provided the Austrians with compensation in the form of Bosnia, and the Three Emperors' League was discontinued, allowing Germany and Austria-Hungary to ally against Russia.

The two empires' distrust of Russia was further fuelled by conflicting ambitions in South-Eastern Europe. Austria-Hungary's desire to crush Serbia was opposed by Russia, which supported Serbia during the 1914 crisis, as both powers feared losing their status as 'Great Powers' if they backed down.

Additionally, German military leaders became increasingly concerned about Russia's expanding industry and substantial resources, fearing that the Russian Empire could become a significant threat to Germany. They worried that Russia's vast resources and population could be mobilised on a large scale, thanks to developments such as railways. This security paradox led to a vicious cycle, with both sides increasing their military power and perceiving the other as a threat to their ambitions.

The Russo-Japanese War also contributed to the tensions, as Germany made no substantive efforts to support Russia, which resulted in a humiliating defeat and a constitutional change that Kaiser Wilhelm II encouraged. This further strained the relationship, with many German thinkers believing that 1905 would have been the ideal time to start a war with Russia.

In summary, the common distrust of Russia between Germany and Austria-Hungary was a significant factor in the formation of the Dual Alliance. This distrust was driven by competing interests in the Balkans, fears of Russian expansionism, and concerns about Russia's growing military and industrial strength. These factors ultimately contributed to the complex web of alliances that led to World War I.

Italy joins the alliance

In 1881, Italy lost out to France in the race to establish a colony in Tunis (modern-day Tunisia). To gain diplomatic support, Italy joined the alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, forming the Triple Alliance in 1882. This was the first formal alliance in Europe.

The Triple Alliance was a secret agreement between the three countries, which was renewed periodically until World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879, united by their common distrust of Russia. Italy sought their support against France. The treaty stated that Germany and Austria-Hungary would assist Italy if it were attacked by France without provocation from Italy. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if Germany were attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral, which would allow Austria-Hungary to redeploy troops from the Italian border to other fronts.

When the treaty was renewed in 1887, Italy gained a promise of German support for its colonial ambitions in North Africa. However, Italy and Austria-Hungary continued to have conflicting interests in the Balkans region. Despite the treaty, Italy reached an understanding with France in 1902, agreeing to remain neutral if either country were attacked. Although the Triple Alliance was renewed in 1907 and 1912, Italy eventually entered World War I in 1915, opposing Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Austria-Hungary's dependence on Germany

Austria-Hungary and Germany formed the Dual Alliance in 1879, a defensive pact against Russia. However, their alliance was one of the more surprising ones at the time, as the two powers had been driven apart by the recent Austro-Prussian War, and the Habsburg rulers believed that Germany's promotion of nationalism would destroy their multinational empire. Nevertheless, their common distrust of Russia united the two empires for a common cause.

Following the unification of Germany in 1871, Vienna and Berlin became closely associated, but Austria-Hungary was the junior partner in the alliance. The political unification of Germany made it the dominant power in Central Europe, and Austria-Hungary became dependent on it in terms of foreign policy. This dependence also extended to domestic policy, as reliance on the Hohenzollern empire made the German element predominant in the multi-ethnic state of Austria-Hungary. The German-speaking populations were split in their identification with Austria and Germany.

During World War I, Austria-Hungary's dependence on Germany became even more pronounced. The Austro-Hungarian army suffered setbacks and incompetence in its high command, forcing it to rely heavily on German assistance. The Romanian Offensive and the Caporetto Offensive, for example, were German-assisted operations. As the war progressed, the Austro-Hungarian army faced supply shortages, low morale, and a high casualty rate, further increasing its dependence on Germany. By 1916, the German Supreme Command had taken over supreme command of Austria-Hungary's military, and the latter effectively became a satellite of Germany.

In summary, Austria-Hungary's dependence on Germany was evident in both foreign and domestic policy, with Germany's dominance in Central Europe influencing the multi-ethnic composition of Austria-Hungary. This dependence was exacerbated during World War I, as military setbacks and economic woes forced Austria-Hungary to rely heavily on German support, ultimately leading to a loss of independence in military and foreign policy decision-making.

Alliance goals and strategies

The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was formed in 1879 as part of Germany's Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent or limit war. Known as the Dual Alliance, it was a defensive pact, with each power promising to support the other in the event of an attack by Russia. The two nations also promised benevolent neutrality to one another if either was attacked by another European power, which was generally taken to be France. Bismarck saw the alliance as a way to prevent the isolation of the German Empire and to preserve peace, as Russia would not wage war against two empires.

The alliance was surprising to many, given the differences between the two nations. Although they shared the German language and a similar culture, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often driven apart, most notably during the Austro-Prussian War. The Habsburg rulers also believed that the promotion of nationalism, which was favoured by Germany, would destroy their multinational empire. However, their common distrust of Russia united them. After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, German Chancellor Bismarck wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo. In 1878, Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, gaining considerable influence in the Balkans, which outraged Austria-Hungary, Russia's chief rival in the region. Bismarck attempted to play the role of an "honest broker" at the Congress of Berlin, but Russo-German relations deteriorated.

In the lead-up to World War I, the alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was driven by their mutual fear of Russia and the desire to maintain their status as 'Great Powers'. Germany's growing strength and pursuit of 'world power' status also influenced its alliance choices. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian-backed terrorist in 1914 further strained relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, as Russia supported Serbia during the ensuing crisis.

In 1882, Italy joined the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, forming the Triple Alliance, the first formal alliance in Europe. Italy sought their support against France after losing North African ambitions to the French. However, Italy did not immediately join its allies in World War I, instead choosing to remain neutral until 1915 when it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, later, Germany. Despite Italy's eventual defection, the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary persisted throughout World War I as part of the Central Powers and ended only with their defeat in 1918.

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