Russia's Attack On Austrian Jews: Who Was To Blame?

The history of Jews in Austria and Russia is long and complex, with periods of prosperity and persecution. In the lead-up to World War II, both countries experienced significant upheaval, with the rise of antisemitism and the implementation of discriminatory policies targeting Jewish communities. While there is no specific mention of Russian attacks on Austrian Jews, it is important to note that both countries played a role in the Holocaust, with state-sanctioned violence and deportations contributing to the systematic extermination of Jewish people.

The Holocaust in Austria

The Annexation of Austria

On March 13, 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, in what became known as the Anschluss. The annexation was met with little resistance, and many Austrians welcomed the Nazis. The day after German troops entered Austrian territory, a law was published declaring Austria one of the lands of the German Empire under the name "Ostmark". On April 10, an Anschluss referendum was held in Austria, and according to official Reich data, with 99.08% of the population voting, the Anschluss was approved by 99.75%.

The Immediate Aftermath of the Annexation

The persecution of Jews was immediate and violent. German racial laws were enacted in Austria, and under these laws, 220,000 people were now considered Jews, a larger figure than the previously accepted number of 182,000. A forced reorganization of Jewish communities was carried out, led by Adolf Eichmann. All Jewish organizations and newspapers were closed, and their leaders and management imprisoned. Jews were no longer allowed on public transport. Many regular Austrians joined the Nazis in terrorizing Jews, forcing them to wash sidewalks and public toilets, sometimes with toothbrushes or their bare hands. In one instance, a group of Jews was rounded up on the Sabbath and forced to eat grass at the Prater, a popular Viennese amusement park.

The Plunder of Jewish Property

Jewish property was seized by Austrians as part of the Holocaust. There was a massive transfer of homes, businesses, real estate, financial assets, and artworks from Jews to non-Jews. A well-organized machinery of plunder, storage, and resale, involving the Gestapo, the Vugesta, the Dorotheum auction house, various transporters, and museums in Vienna, moved artworks and other property seized from Jews into the hands of non-Jews. Hundreds of Jewish businesses in Vienna were seized by the Nazis and never returned after the war.

Isolation, Deportation, and Extermination

In October 1939, the deportation of Austrian Jews to Poland began, as part of a larger plan to gather and restrict all of Europe's Jewish populace in one territory. The deportation of Jews to death camps began in February 1941, and after the Wannsee Conference, this process was accelerated. The Viennese community was officially liquidated on November 1, 1942, at which time approximately 7,000 Jews remained in Austria. The deportations continued until March 1945. As a result of the Holocaust, according to various sources, between 60,000 and 65,000 Austrian Jews lost their lives, almost the entire number of those who did not leave before the war.

Holocaust Remembrance and Education in Austria

For many years after World War II, Austrian society adhered to the First Victim narrative, which portrayed Austria as a victim, rather than an enthusiastic supporter, of Nazi Germany, thereby sidestepping responsibility for the crimes of the Third Reich. Although the Nazi genocide was well-documented in the Archives of the Austrian Resistance during the 1960s, actual critical study of the Holocaust did not enter the mainstream of Austrian historiography until the 1980s. A 2019 study found that most Austrian adults were largely ignorant about the Holocaust.

Holocaust denial in Austria is a criminal offense, and deniers are prosecuted under Section 3 of the 1947 Constitutional Prohibition Act. In recent years, there has been a push for better Holocaust education in Austria, with 76% of respondents in one survey stating that it should be compulsory in schools.

The Austrian Jewish Community Before the Anschluss

The Austrian Jewish community has a long history, dating back to the 3rd century CE. Over the centuries, the community experienced periods of prosperity, equality, and cultural flourishing, as well as times of persecution, deportations, and antisemitism. By the early 20th century, the Jewish community in Austria was strong and vibrant, with a significant presence in Vienna.

The Jewish Community in Vienna

Before the Anschluss, the Jewish community in Vienna was thriving. In January 1938, there were approximately 190,000 Jews living in Austria, with the majority, around 176,000, residing in Vienna. This made up about 10% of the city's population. The community was well-established, with 22 synagogues, over 50 prayer houses, a Jewish museum, libraries, schools, hospitals, orphanages, sports clubs, theatres, kosher kitchens, Zionist organizations, and newspapers. They also had a strong presence in various professions, particularly in textiles, the arts, and academia.

A History of Persecution and Resilience

However, this thriving community had endured a long history of persecution. During the Middle Ages, the Jewish community in Austria faced persecution and massacres. In the 15th and 16th centuries, they were subjected to expulsions, confiscation of property, and discriminatory laws. The Enlightenment era brought some respite, with the Edict of Tolerance in 1782 granting civil rights to Jews. Yet, it wasn't until 1867 that Jews were finally recognized as equal citizens.

Cultural and Intellectual Contributions

Despite the challenges, Austrian Jews made significant contributions to the country's culture and intellectual life. Notable figures included Theodor Herzl, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Gustav Mahler, and many others. They excelled in various fields, including journalism, literature, music, psychology, and philosophy.

The Rise of Nazism and the Annexation

In the lead-up to the Anschluss, Austria experienced a period of economic stagnation, political dictatorship, and intense Nazi propaganda. On March 12, 1938, Hitler's army marched into Austria, and the country was quickly incorporated into Nazi Germany. This marked a devastating turning point for the Austrian Jewish community, as they became targets of persecution, violence, and expulsion.

Persecution and Deportation: 1938-1945

The persecution and deportation of Austrian Jews from 1938 to 1945 was a horrific period in history, marked by violence, expropriation, and forced emigration. Here is an overview of the key events during this dark chapter:

1938: The Beginning of Terror

On March 12, 1938, Germany's 8th Army marched into Austria, marking the beginning of the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria by Nazi Germany. This event triggered a wave of terror for the Jewish population, who became targets of extreme intimidation, violence, and property expropriation by Nazis and their followers. A plebiscite held on April 10, 1938, resulted in an overwhelming majority voting in favour of the annexation, with over 99% of the eligible population supporting it.

The Kristallnacht Pogrom:

The night between November 8 and 9, 1938, witnessed violent riots, arrests, and the burning of synagogues and Jewish prayer houses during the Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass") pogrom. This event occurred not only in Germany but also in Austria, which was now part of the German Reich. Synagogues were desecrated, Jewish-owned businesses vandalised, and Jewish homes attacked. Some Jews were sent to the Mauthausen concentration camp, while others were forced into labour.

Expropriation and Aryanization:

By April 27, 1938, all Jews were required to declare their assets if their total worth exceeded ATS 7,500 ($2,000). This allowed the Nazi authorities and their private followers to loot Jewish assets, contributing to their war efforts. By February 1939, Hans Rafelsberger, the head of a major Nazi-controlled Austrian bank consortium, noted that most of the "aryanization" of Jewish shops and businesses had been achieved, with the majority going to Nazi Party members.

Forced Emigration:

SS Lieutenant Adolf Eichmann established a Central Office of Jewish Emigration in Vienna, creating a "model" for solving "the Jewish problem." This office facilitated the emigration of Jews from Austria, with organisations like the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee providing funds to assist over 130,000 people. However, those lucky enough to escape had to pay heavy taxes and renounce ever returning to the German Reich.

Deportations to Camps:

The first deportations of Austrian Jews began in October 1939, with about 1,500 Jews sent to Nisko. Between February and March 1941, another 5,000 were deported to various locations in Poland. By December 1940, around 50,000-60,000 Jews remained in Vienna, struggling to survive with blocked bank accounts and evictions from their homes.

Systematic Deportations:

From October 15, 1941, onwards, the first systematic deportations of Jews from Vienna to the Lodz Ghetto began. This was followed by deportations to Minsk, Riga, and Terezin (Theresienstadt). The first direct deportation to Auschwitz occurred on July 17, 1942, when 995 people were sent to the notorious death camp. Deportations continued into 1945, with many Austrian Jews perishing in the Holocaust.

The Fate of Austrian Jews:

By the end of World War II in 1945, approximately 5,000 Jews remained in Austria. The majority of Austrian Jews who survived or returned after the war were elderly. They faced a challenging task of rebuilding their lives and communities amidst a culture of anti-Semitism and reluctance to provide compensation.

The Postwar Austrian Jewish Community

The liberation of Austria by the Soviet Army in May 1945 marked the end of World War II and the Holocaust, which had decimated the country's Jewish population. In the aftermath, the Kultusgemeinde, the Jewish Community of Austria, set about rebuilding, now free from Nazi control. By December 1945, the Kultusgemeinde had around 4,000 members, with 29% aged over 60 and 31% aged between 46 and 60. The community began to grow, and by 1948, its numbers had doubled.

Despite these obstacles, the Austrian Jewish community gradually re-established its institutions and organizations. The Hakoah Sports Club, Zionist Association, Makkabi Sports Association, Austrian Jewish Student's Association, and other groups resumed their activities. The community also received support from international organizations like the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee.

By the 1950s, a wave of immigration from the Soviet Union brought Russian Jews to Austria, contributing to the growth of the community. Today, the Austrian Jewish population stands at around 12,000-15,000, with the majority living in Vienna, followed by Graz and Salzburg. The community is diverse, comprising Holocaust survivors and their children, returning Austrian expatriates, and refugees from Eastern Europe, including a significant number of Bukharan and Georgian Jews.

Difficulties in Enacting Restitution and Compensation

The Austrian government's historical stance as the "first victim" of Nazi aggression removed the legal obligation to make reparations for Nazi crimes. This, along with the fact that the country's focus was on rebuilding its own infrastructure, meant that Austrian politicians were slow to respond to their responsibilities regarding the crimes of the Third Reich and the country's former Jewish population.

In 1945, the Austrian government passed a law requiring people with known property confiscated after the Nazi annexation to register it. A year later, an "annulment law" was passed that nullified all Nazi laws in force between 1938 and 1945. If this law had been applied to the letter, there would have been little need for subsequent restitution and compensation negotiations.

The Austrian government's initial reluctance to encourage those expelled from the country to return also hindered the restitution process. The dire living conditions and lack of available housing in the immediate postwar years created a situation where even the leadership of the Austrian Jewish community did not encourage former Vienna Jews to return.

In the late 1940s, the highest-ranking Austrian politicians made anti-Semitic statements, fostering a culture of unwillingness to negotiate compensation for victims. For example, President Karl Renner said:

> "Even if there was room [for Jews] from Eastern Europe...I do not believe that Austria of today would again allow Jews to build these family monopolies. For sure we would not permit new Jewish communities from Eastern Europe to come here and establish themselves while our own people need work."

Some restitution efforts were made, however. Between 1946 and 1949, several property restitution laws were passed, allowing owners of real estate to reclaim expropriated or "aryanized" property. The Kultusgemeinde (the Jewish Community) also took an active part in these efforts.

In 1998, the Austrian government introduced the Art Restitution Act, which re-examined the question of art stolen by the Nazis. In 2005, the Austrian government sent compensation letters to the 19,300 Austrian Holocaust survivors still alive, and paid out over $2 million in compensation.

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