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Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. The British government had been sending convicts overseas since the early 18th century, initially to American colonies. However, this practice ended with the American Revolution, leading to the selection of Australia as the new site for penal colonies. The first fleet of 11 convict ships arrived at Botany Bay, Sydney, in 1787, marking the beginning of the mass transportation of criminals to Australia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time period | 1787-1868 |
| Number of convicts transported | 162,000 |
| Number of convict ships | 43 |
| Peak year | 1833 |
| Number of convicts transported in peak year | 7,000 |
| Number of female convicts | Approximately one in seven |
| Crimes committed | Theft, assault, robbery, fraud, perjury, violent crimes |
| Sentence | Penal transportation for seven years, fourteen years or life |
| Conditions on ships | Cramped, unhygienic, insufficient food, disease-ridden |
| Convict labour used for | Agriculture, herding livestock, construction, manual tasks such as timber cutting, brick making, stone cutting |
| Notable figures | Captain Arthur Phillip, Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Bourke |
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What You'll Learn
The First Fleet of convict ships
The British penal system transported about 162,000 convicts from Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868. The First Fleet of convict ships, which comprised 11 vessels, carried almost 800 convicts (775 by some accounts) and departed from Portsmouth, England, in May 1787. It arrived at Botany Bay, Sydney, in January 1788, marking the beginning of convict transportation to Australia and the European colonisation of the continent. The fleet included six convict transport ships, two Royal Navy vessels, and other ships carrying officers, marines, their families, and free people.
The First Fleet convicts were mostly poor people from large industrial cities, primarily in England, with significant minorities from Ireland and Scotland. They were transported for various crimes, including theft, assault, robbery, and fraud, which were considered minor offences at the time. The prisoners were sentenced to penal transportation for seven years, fourteen years, or life, despite committing generally low-grade crimes. The journey was arduous and challenging, with convicts enduring cramped and unhygienic conditions on board the ships. Many convicts died during the voyage, mainly due to illnesses such as cholera.
Upon arrival, the First Fleet established the first permanent European colony on the Australian continent, within New South Wales. The colony was named Sydney Cove, in honour of Lord Sydney, and the date of its establishment, January 26, is now celebrated as Australia Day. However, the early days of the colony were marked by hardships, including starvation due to food shortages and difficulties in establishing agriculture. The colony also witnessed violence between the settlers and the Eora people, the traditional Aboriginal owners of the land in the Sydney area.
The First Fleet was followed by other fleets of convict ships, and the transportation of convicts to Australia continued until 1868. During this period, over 150,000 convicts were transported to New South Wales and other Australian colonies. The impact of convict settlement on the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was devastating, with thousands losing their lives in conflicts and diseases, and their cultural traditions and languages being eroded.
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Convicts' crimes and sentences
The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 18th century. The Transportation Act of 1717 legitimised transportation as a direct sentence, simplifying the penal process. The act led to significant changes, with both petty and grand larceny being punished by transportation for seven years. The sentence for any non-capital offence was at the judge's discretion.
After the end of trans-Atlantic transportation with the start of the American Revolution, the British sought an alternative destination to relieve further overcrowding of prisons. In 1770, James Cook claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain, and in 1787, the First Fleet of 11 convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent.
The convicts transported to Australia had committed a range of different crimes, including theft, assault, robbery, and fraud. About 80% of transportees were thieves. Serious crimes such as rape and murder were made transportable offences in the 1830s, but as they were also punishable by death, few convicts were transported for such crimes.
Convicts sentenced to transportation were transported for seven years, fourteen years, or life. The prisoners were transported on ships in appalling conditions, with many not surviving the journey. During the transportation period, nearly 2000 convicts died, usually from illnesses such as cholera, due to cramped and unhygienic conditions.
Once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society.
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Conditions on convict ships
The conditions on convict ships that took criminals to Australia were often harsh and life-threatening. The ships were typically old and decrepit, and the fees paid to ship owners were so low that only the worst vessels were used. The journey to Australia was long, and many convicts were confined to their beds, unable to move. The ships were cramped and unhygienic, with unsatisfactory nutrition, poor ventilation, and a lack of fresh air. These conditions led to the spread of diseases such as cholera, and many convicts died during the journey. For example, the Second Fleet, which included the old ship Surprize, had high mortality rates due to the poor conditions on board. The Third Fleet also had high mortality rates, with 182 convicts dying out of a total of 2057.
The convict ships were not specifically designed for transporting prisoners, and there was no ship exclusively for convict transportation. The vessels were typically square-rigged ships or barques, with some being brigs, and most having small to moderate tonnage. The ships were used for general cargo or passenger transport at other times. The convict transportation system was introduced to relieve overcrowding in British prisons and hulks, which were unable to accommodate the increasing number of prisoners due to the surge in petty crimes during the Industrial Revolution.
Convicts transported on these ships included men, women, minority groups, and political prisoners. Most convicts were transported for petty crimes, particularly theft, and thieves comprised 80% of all transportees. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, became transportable offences in the 1830s, but they were also punishable by death, so fewer convicts were transported for these crimes. The prisoners were sentenced to penal transportation for seven years, fourteen years, or life, despite their crimes generally being low-grade.
During the journey, convicts could face harsh punishments such as lashes with the cat o' nine tails, which could leave them vulnerable to infection. However, there were also opportunities for early release and pardons. The Ticket of Leave system offered well-behaved convicts early release, allowing them to work for themselves under the condition that they reported to the local police regularly. Conditional and absolute pardons were also granted in some cases. Once their sentences were served, convicts were issued a Certificate of Freedom and could settle in Australia or return home.
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Convict labour in Australia
The British penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868 are a significant example of convict labour. During this period, Australia received about 162,000 convicts transported from Britain and Ireland, with some sources estimating the number to be about 171,000. These convicts were transported to various penal colonies in Australia, including New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), Queensland, and Western Australia. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and then declined as protests against the convict system intensified in the colonies.
The first fleet of 11 convict ships carrying around 1,000 convicts arrived at Botany Bay, Sydney, in 1787. The convicts were a mix of men, women, minority groups, and political prisoners. Most convicts were transported for petty crimes like theft, robbery, assault, and fraud, with 80% being thieves. Convicts sentenced to transportation received harsh punishments, including seven years, fourteen years, or life imprisonment, despite committing generally low-grade crimes. The conditions on the ships were appalling, with many convicts dying during the journey from diseases like cholera due to cramped and unhygienic conditions.
Once in Australia, convicts were put to work in various forms of penal labour, including involuntary servitude, penal servitude, and imprisonment with hard labour. They contributed to the construction of public infrastructure and the convict system itself, such as the Convict Establishment in Fremantle. The work assigned to them depended on their skills, with some convicts engaged in shoemaking, tailoring, or joinery. The punishment for misbehaviour included stints in the Convict Establishment.
The convict era in Australia has left a significant impact on the country's history and culture, with many Australians now celebrating discovering a convict in their lineage. It has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works, and it has been studied extensively by writers and historians. The collective labour of convicts and their subsequent settlement in Australia transformed the physical, social, economic, political, and genetic landscape of the country, shaping the foundation of the modern Australian nation.
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The end of convict transportation
The transportation of convicts to Australia began in 1787 with the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships, which included six convict transport ships carrying almost 800 convicts. The practice continued until 1868, with around 162,000 convicts transported to Australia during this period.
Another factor was the rise of reform movements and critics of how the transported convicts were treated. Reformers like Maconochie published reports critical of the harsh conditions and excessive use of force and violence against prisoners. Maconochie successfully implemented a mark system on Norfolk Island, where convicts were given plots of land to grow vegetables and tobacco instead of being subjected to flogging. His system resulted in a low reconviction rate, but he faced opposition from those who wanted to maintain the old system of punishment.
Additionally, the transportation of convicts became less effective as a form of deterrence and punishment. Despite the harsh conditions and treatment, most convicts chose to remain in Australia after serving their sentences, contributing to the development of a new nation known for its law-abiding citizens and low crime rate. This went against the original intentions of the transportation system, which aimed to deter crime and remove convicted criminals from Britain.
The last convict ship to arrive in Western Australia was on 10 January 1868, marking the end of convict transportation to the region. However, it is important to note that there were still convicts present in Australia after this date, serving their sentences and contributing their labour to the colony. The impact of convict labour can still be seen today in many of Western Australia's heritage sites, such as Government House and the Perth Town Hall.
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Frequently asked questions
Transportation to Australia emerged in the British legal system in the early 17th century as an alternative to execution. Prisons in Britain were overcrowded, and the old prison ships, known as hulks, were unable to accommodate the overflow.
Most convicts were transported for petty crimes, particularly theft. More serious crimes, such as rape and murder, became transportable offences in the 1830s, but since they were also punishable by death, comparatively few convicts were transported for such crimes.
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported from Great Britain and Ireland to various penal colonies in Australia. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s, with nearly 7,000 convicts arriving in one year.
