The Complex Union: Austria And Germany's Historical Ties

The union of Austria and Germany, known as the Anschluss, was the annexation of Austria into Germany in 1938. The idea of a union between the two countries was popular in both Austria and Germany after Austria was excluded from the unification of Germany in 1871. The union was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, but after the rise of Nazism in Germany, it became far less appealing to many Austrian political groups. However, in 1938, Hitler pressured the Austrian chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, to include members of the Austrian Nazi Party in his cabinet and give them full political rights. When Schuschnigg called for a national plebiscite, Hitler decided to invade Austria to prevent the vote. German troops entered Austria on March 12, 1938, and the country became a province of Germany.

The annexation of Austria into the German Reich

Background

The idea of a union between Austria and Germany, or the Anschluss, emerged after the 1871 unification of Germany, which excluded Austria. The concept gained support following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, as the new Republic of German-Austria sought to unite with Germany. However, the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 prohibited this union and stripped Austria of some territories.

Rise of Nazism and Hitler's Role

In the 1920s, the proposal for the Anschluss found strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and center. However, with the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification became associated with Nazi ideology. Hitler, himself an Austrian, had expressed his support for the union in his writings and speeches, considering it integral to his concept of a "Greater Germany."

Attempts at Unification

Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in July 1934, assassinating Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss but ultimately failing to seize power. This prompted many leading Austrian Nazis to flee to Germany, where they continued their efforts. In early 1938, under pressure from pro-unification activists, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on the union for March 13, 1938. Hitler, portraying this as defying the popular will, threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign.

German Invasion and Annexation

On March 11, 1938, Schuschnigg cancelled the referendum and offered to resign. Hitler demanded that the Austrian President, Wilhelm Miklas, appoint an Austrian Nazi, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, as the new chancellor. When Miklas initially refused, Hitler ordered the invasion to commence at dawn on March 12. German troops crossed the border, encountering no resistance, and Hitler himself entered Austria, receiving an enthusiastic welcome.

On March 13, 1938, Seyss-Inquart, now appointed as chancellor, signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany. Austria ceased to exist as an independent nation and became a province of Germany. A plebiscite held on April 10, 1938, resulted in a 99.7% approval for the union, although the validity of this vote has been questioned due to coercion and the disenfranchisement of certain groups.

Impact and Reactions

The annexation of Austria was the first act of territorial aggression by Nazi Germany and a significant breach of the post-World War I international order. It demonstrated Hitler's aggressive expansionist ambitions and the failure of other European powers to curb his actions. The international response was largely verbal and moderate, with no military confrontation occurring.

The Anschluss had a profound impact on Austria, leading to the rapid Nazification of Austrian society and the persecution of Jews, with many Austrians participating in these endeavors. The union also served as a stepping stone for Hitler's further territorial ambitions, including the subsequent invasion of Czechoslovakia.

The Austrian government's resistance to unification

In 1933, Dollfuss transformed Austria from a democratic republic into a right-wing authoritarian regime known as the Corporate State or Austrofascist state. This regime was opposed to the unification of Austria and Germany, which was a key goal of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.

In May 1933, Austrian Nazis, with encouragement and funding from Germany, launched a propaganda and terror campaign aimed at undermining the Dollfuss regime. They staged disruptive protests, brawls with political opponents, and bomb attacks in public places and Jewish-owned businesses. In response to the violence, the Dollfuss government banned the Austrian Nazi Party and its affiliates in June 1933, making their activities illegal in Austria.

Despite the ban, Austrian Nazis continued to operate clandestinely within the country and also fled across the border into Germany, where they formed a paramilitary unit known as the Austrian Legion. The Austrian Legion received military training from German Nazis and posed a threatening military presence near the Austro-German border.

In July 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted a coup against the Dollfuss government. They took control of the Austrian chancellery and assassinated Dollfuss, but the coup ultimately failed due to the loyalty of the majority of Austrians to the government and the support of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, who sent troops to defend Austrian sovereignty.

After the failed coup, Kurt von Schuschnigg took over as Austrian chancellor and continued many of Dollfuss' authoritarian policies. However, he faced increasing pressure from pro-unification activists and, in early 1938, announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany. Hitler threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign, leading to the German annexation of Austria in March 1938, known as the Anschluss.

The Nazi Party of Austria's influence on public opinion

The Rise of the Nazi Party in Austria

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Austrian Nazi Party was characterised by internal divisions and ineffectiveness. However, by 1931, the majority of Austrian Nazis recognised Adolf Hitler as their leader. Hitler appointed a German Nazi, Theodor Habicht, to bring the Austrian party in line with the broader Nazi agenda. This appointment marked a turning point for the Austrian Nazi Party, which began to gain traction among the Austrian populace.

Propaganda and Terror Campaigns

Beginning in May 1933, the Austrian Nazis, with encouragement and funding from Germany, launched a propaganda and terror campaign aimed at undermining the Austrian government led by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. They staged disruptive protests, brawls with political opponents, and set off explosives in public places and Jewish-owned businesses. This campaign of violence and intimidation aimed to portray the Dollfuss regime as incompetent and favour unification with Germany.

The Austrian Plebiscite Attempt

On March 9, 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, who had taken over after Dollfuss' assassination by Austrian Nazis in 1934, attempted to assert Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite (referendum) to be held on March 13. This plebiscite sought to gauge public support for maintaining Austrian independence. However, Hitler was infuriated by this move and responded with a series of ultimatums, demanding that Schuschnigg cancel the plebiscite, resign, and appoint a pro-Nazi Austrian, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, as the new chancellor.

The Role of German Media

The German media played a significant role in shaping public opinion during this tumultuous period. German newsreels and newspapers featured footage and photographs of Austrians expressing pro-Nazi sentiments and celebrating the union with Germany. This was strategically used as propaganda to justify the illegal annexation and create the perception of widespread Austrian support for the Anschluss.

The Impact of the Nazi Party on Public Opinion

The Nazi Party's influence on public opinion in Austria was substantial. Their campaigns effectively polarised the Austrian populace, with many Austrians embracing Nazi ideology and others vehemently opposing it. The terror campaigns and propaganda tactics employed by the Austrian Nazis contributed to an atmosphere of fear and uncertainty. Additionally, the Nazi Party's ability to mobilise supporters and stage disruptive actions created the perception of widespread support for their agenda.

However, it is important to note that the true extent of Austrian public opinion in favour of the Nazis is difficult to ascertain due to the presence of coercion, threats, and voter manipulation during the plebiscites. While the official results indicated overwhelming support for the Anschluss, estimates suggest that only about 20% to 30% of Austrians genuinely supported unification with Germany.

In conclusion, the Nazi Party of Austria played a significant role in shaping public opinion in the lead-up to the annexation. Their propaganda and terror campaigns, combined with the mobilisation of supporters, created an environment conducive to the Nazi agenda. However, it is essential to recognise that Austrian society was deeply divided, with a substantial portion of the population resisting Nazi influence and a minority actively participating in resistance efforts.

The role of Italy in protecting Austrian independence

Italy played a key role in protecting Austrian independence in the years leading up to World War II. In the 1930s, Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at territorial expansion. This included plans to annex Austria, which was home to millions of ethnic Germans. However, Italy, under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, supported Austrian independence and took steps to prevent a Nazi takeover.

Initially, Italy and Austria were allies, with Austria's Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss aligning his country with Fascist Italy and authoritarian Hungary. When Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in July 1934, Mussolini sent troops to the Austro-Italian border to defend Austrian sovereignty. Mussolini was outraged by the coup attempt and the assassination of Dollfuss, and Austria became a point of contention between Italy and Germany.

However, as Germany's power grew, Italy's position shifted. By 1935-1936, Mussolini began to pressure Kurt Schuschnigg, Dollfuss's successor as Austrian Chancellor, to cooperate with the Germans. In 1937, Italy formed the Berlin-Rome Axis with Germany, signalling a shift in Mussolini's stance. Despite this, Italy continued to play a role in delaying the German annexation of Austria.

In February 1938, Hitler invited Schuschnigg to Germany and forced him to agree to give Austrian Nazis a free hand in the country's politics. Schuschnigg later tried to repudiate this agreement and announced a plebiscite on the question of the Anschluss. In response, Hitler bullied Schuschnigg into cancelling the plebiscite and resigning, and on March 12, 1938, German troops invaded Austria.

While Italy did not actively prevent the annexation, Mussolini's earlier support for Austrian independence and his opposition to the Nazi coup attempt in 1934 delayed Hitler's plans and demonstrated Italy's commitment to maintaining Austria's sovereignty. Italy's role in protecting Austrian independence was short-lived, as the balance of power in Europe shifted and Mussolini ultimately chose to side with Hitler.

The plebiscite and its results

On 9 March 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg called a referendum (plebiscite) on the issue of unification, to be held on 13 March. This was an attempt to put Hitler's mind at rest and show the international community that Austrians wanted to remain independent. However, Hitler was infuriated by the plebiscite and demanded that Schuschnigg cancel it and resign.

Hitler's plan was for the new Austrian chancellor, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, to immediately call for German troops to rush to Austria's aid, restoring order and giving the invasion an air of legitimacy. In the face of this threat, Schuschnigg cancelled the plebiscite and resigned.

On 12 March, the German Army crossed the border into Austria, unopposed by the Austrian military. On 13 March, Seyss-Inquart signed the law called the "Reunification of Austria with Germany", formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany. A new plebiscite was scheduled for 10 April.

The April plebiscite was another propaganda opportunity. The ballot was not secret, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote, resulting in 99.7% approval for the Anschluss. While the population's true opinions are unknown, it has been estimated that about 70% of Austrians would have voted to preserve Austrian independence.

The plebiscite was subject to large-scale Nazi propaganda and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 360,000 people (8% of the eligible voting population), mainly political enemies such as former members of left-wing parties and Austrian citizens of Jewish or Romani origin.

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