Austria's Control Over Serbia: A Historical Perspective

Serbia was never directly controlled by Austria, but it was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces from late 1915 until the end of World War I.

The history of relations between the two countries goes back to the Great Turkish War, when Serbia was a province of the Habsburg monarchy. In the late 19th century, Serbia was an autonomous state within the Ottoman Empire, and the Habsburgs recognised its independence in 1874. However, tensions arose due to Serbian nationalism, which posed a threat to the survival of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as it included a sizeable Serb minority.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a young Bosnian Serb in 1914 served as a catalyst for the outbreak of World War I. Following this event, Austro-Hungary launched three unsuccessful offensives against Serbia, and with the help of German and Bulgarian forces, Serbia was conquered and divided into separate occupation zones. The northern three-quarters of Serbia was placed under Austro-Hungarian rule until 1918, when it was liberated by Allied forces.

The 1906-1909 Pig War

Serbia was not controlled by Austria, but the two countries were locked in a complex diplomatic and military conflict that would eventually escalate into World War I.

One notable episode in this conflict was the so-called "Pig War" of 1906-1909. This was a tariff dispute between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, which began when Serbia, hoping to reduce its economic dependence on Austria, started to build trade links with France and Bulgaria. In response, Austria-Hungary banned all imports of Serbian pork, and the quarrel became known as "the Pig War". Serbia retaliated by selling its pork to France, sending it through Bosnia to the Adriatic, and then by sea to France.

The Pig War was just one episode in the deteriorating relationship between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, which would have far-reaching consequences for the wider region and, indeed, the world.

The 1912-1913 Balkan Wars

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 were a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states. The First Balkan War began on October 8, 1912, when the Balkan League—Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro—declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan allies were victorious, and the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of London on May 30, 1913. The Second Balkan War began on June 16, 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its loss of Macedonia, attacked its former allies. Romania, which had not been involved in the first war, joined the conflict and attacked Bulgaria from the north. The Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace, regaining Adrianople. The war ended with the Treaty of Bucharest on August 10, 1913, which partitioned Macedonia and established the independent state of Albania.

The Balkan Wars had their origins in the discontent produced in Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece by disorder in Macedonia. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 brought into power in Constantinople (now Istanbul) a ministry determined on reform but insisting on the principle of centralized control. There were, therefore, no concessions to the Christian nationalities of Macedonia, which consisted not only of Macedonians but also of Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Vlachs. The Albanians, whose growing sense of nationalism had been awakened by the Albanian League, were likewise discontented with the Young Turks' centralist policy.

The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), founded in 1893, organized bands to resist the Turkish administration. Clashes not only exacerbated feelings within Macedonia but also roused public opinion in Bulgaria in favor of intervention. A similar development occurred in Serbia, where the patriotic society Narodna Odbrana ("National Defense"), invigorated by the infiltration of the "Union or Death" group (founded in May 1911 and better known as the Black Hand), was active not only within the Serbian administration but also in organizing Serbian resistance in Macedonia.

The First Balkan War was fought between the members of the Balkan League and the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan League was formed under Russian auspices in the spring of 1912 to take Macedonia away from Turkey, which was already involved in a war with Italy. The league was able to field a combined force of 750,000 men. Montenegro opened hostilities by declaring war on Turkey on October 8, 1912, and the other members of the league followed suit ten days later.

The Balkan allies were soon victorious. In Thrace, the Bulgarians defeated the main Ottoman forces, advancing to the outskirts of Constantinople and laying siege to Adrianople (Edirne). In Macedonia, the Serbian army achieved a great victory at Kumanovo that enabled it to capture Bitola and to join forces with the Montenegrins and enter Skopje. The Greeks, meanwhile, occupied Salonika (Thessaloníki) and advanced on Ioánnina. In Albania, the Montenegrins besieged and captured the Shkodër, ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the Çatalca line after nearly 500 years.

The Turkish collapse was so complete that all parties were willing to conclude an armistice on December 3, 1912. A peace conference was begun in London, but after a coup d'état by the Young Turks in Constantinople in January 1913, war with the Ottomans was resumed. Again the allies were victorious: Ioánnina fell to the Greeks and Adrianople to the Bulgarians. Under a peace treaty signed in London on May 30, 1913, the Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its remaining European territory, including all of Macedonia and Albania. Albanian independence was insisted upon by the European powers, and Macedonia was to be divided among the Balkan allies.

The Second Balkan War began when Serbia, Greece, and Romania quarreled with Bulgaria over the division of their joint conquests in Macedonia. On June 1, 1913, Serbia and Greece formed an alliance against Bulgaria, and the war began on the night of June 29–30, 1913, when King Ferdinand of Bulgaria ordered his troops to attack Serbian and Greek forces in Macedonia. The Bulgarian offensive, benefiting from surprise, was initially successful, but Greek and Serbian defenders retired in good order.

The Serbian army counterattacked on July 2 and drove a wedge into the Bulgarian line. Greek reserves advanced to the front on July 3, and a series of attacks over the following days threatened to turn the left flank of an entire Bulgarian army. In an effort to save their force from being cut off entirely, the Bulgarians launched a desperate attack on the Serbian lines. Once again, the Bulgarians achieved momentary success, but by July 10, the offensive had completely stalled. On July 11, the Romanian army crossed the Bulgarian frontier and began an unopposed march on Sofia, the Bulgarian capital. The following day, the Turks violated their armistice with Bulgaria and entered Thrace. The Greeks and the Serbs launched a general offensive on July 15, and the Turks reoccupied Adrianople on July 22. With enemy columns converging on Sofia, the Bulgarians bowed to the inevitable. On July 30, they concluded an armistice to end hostilities, and a peace treaty was signed between the combatants on August 10, 1913. Under the terms of the treaty, Greece and Serbia divided most of Macedonia between themselves, leaving Bulgaria with only a small part of the region.

The 1914 July Crisis

Elements within the Austro-Hungarian government had long wanted to strike at Serbia and saw the assassination as a ready-made excuse to launch a war. However, they sought support from their ally, Germany, as they were wary of the reaction of Russia, a major supporter of Serbia. On July 5, Germany issued what became known as the "blank cheque", promising unconditional support for Austria-Hungary regardless of their course of action.

On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia with a set of ten firmly worded demands and a 48-hour deadline for response. Serbia sought counsel from Russia, who offered public condemnation of the ultimatum but refused to offer any military guarantees. Britain also attempted to avert war by organising a mediation conference, but this was rejected by Berlin and Vienna.

Serbia responded to the ultimatum just before the deadline, submitting to most demands but rejecting an Austrian-led inquiry, which it considered a breach of sovereignty. On July 28, Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef declared war on Serbia.

The declaration of war triggered a chain reaction, drawing in the nations of Europe. Russia, a long-time protector of Serbia, responded by mobilising its forces against Austria-Hungary. Germany's rulers declared war on Russia on August 1 and activated the Schlieffen Plan, an invasion of France, on August 2. Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium triggered Britain's involvement, which in turn brought British dominions—Australia, New Zealand, Canada, India, and South Africa—into the conflict. By the end of August, most of Europe was at war.

The 1915-1918 Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia, which lasted from late 1915 until the end of World War I, was the second invasion of Serbia by the Central Powers during the First World War. The first invasion, which began in August 1914, was repelled by the Serbians and their Montenegrin allies. The second invasion, which began in October 1915, was a joint offensive by Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces, led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen. This invasion successfully occupied Serbia, resulting in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania, the evacuation to Greece, and the establishment of the Macedonian front.

The First Invasion

The first invasion of Serbia, which began in August 1914, was dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership. It was commanded by Austrian General Oskar Potiorek and ended after three unsuccessful invasion attempts were repelled by the Serbians and their Montenegrin allies. The victory of the Royal Serbian Army at the Battle of Cer is considered the first Allied victory of World War I, and the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Army by Serbia has been called one of the great upsets of modern military history.

The Second Invasion

The second invasion of Serbia began in October 1915, almost a year after the first invasion. This time, Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces, led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen, invaded Serbia from three sides. This invasion successfully occupied Serbia, resulting in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania, and the evacuation of Serbian forces to Greece. Serbia was then divided into two separate occupation zones, an Austro-Hungarian zone and a Bulgarian zone, both governed under a military administration.

Occupation and Liberation

Serbia was subjected to ruthless economic exploitation during the occupation, and its population suffered greatly due to devastation, deportations, internment, and denationalization at the hands of the occupation regime. The Austro-Hungarian occupation zone covered the northern three-quarters of Serbia and was ruled by the Military General Governorate of Serbia (MGG/S), an administration established by the Austro-Hungarian Army. The goal of the new administration was to denationalize the Serb population and exploit the country's economic resources.

In September 1918, Allied forces, spearheaded by the Serbian Second Army and the Yugoslav Volunteer Division, broke through the Salonica front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the liberation of Serbia by the end of October. By 1 November 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, bringing the Austro-Hungarian occupation to an end.

The 1918 liberation of Serbia

The Liberation of Serbia in 1918 was a pivotal moment in World War I, leading to the quick end of the wider war and significant political changes in the region. Here is a detailed account of the events leading up to and surrounding this liberation.

Background

Serbia had a tumultuous relationship with Austria-Hungary in the years leading up to World War I. Serbia was ruled by the Ottoman Empire until 1815, when the Serbs successfully rebelled. In 1835, they proclaimed their own constitution. During this time, Austria-Hungary was a dynastic empire comprising many different races and was nicknamed "the polyglot empire." It viewed Serbia, a fellow Balkan state, as a threat due to its nationalism, which aspired to establish its own nation-state. This tension escalated into what became known as the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909.

The Bosnian Crisis

In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, a region with a significant Serb population, which Serbia had hoped to incorporate into its territory. This annexation angered Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. The crisis was further fuelled by Russian political manoeuvring in the region, which destabilised already fragile peace accords.

The Balkan Wars

From 1912 to 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League (comprising Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro) and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. This conflict resulted in the Treaty of London, which further diminished the Ottoman Empire's territory and created an independent Principality of Albania. It also enlarged the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. However, tensions between the Balkan League members, particularly Serbia and Bulgaria, persisted, leading to the Second Balkan War in 1913.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student and member of the revolutionary organisation Young Bosnia, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo. This assassination inadvertently triggered a chain of events that drew in the major European powers. Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, used this incident to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, consisting of ten demands designed to be unacceptable, to provoke a war. Serbia agreed to eight of the ten demands, but Austria-Hungary nonetheless declared war on July 28, 1914.

World War I and the Liberation of Serbia

The dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated into World War I, with Serbia becoming a subsidiary front in the massive conflict unfolding along Austria-Hungary's border with Russia. Serbia, exhausted from the Balkan Wars and poorly equipped, fell to combined Central Powers forces, which included Bulgaria, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Germany. The remnants of the Royal Serbian Army retreated to Italian-occupied Albanian ports, from where Entente naval forces evacuated them to the Greek island of Corfu.

In October 1915, advance elements of a French and British expeditionary force arrived by sea at Salonika in Greek Macedonia, drawing neutral Greece further into the war. The Central Powers pursued the retreating Serbs, occupying not only Serbia but also Albania and Montenegro by January 1916.

It was not until September 1918 that the Entente launched effective offensives on the Macedonian Front, with the Vardar Offensive breaking through Bulgarian and Central Powers defences. This culminated in the Battle of Dobro Pole on September 15. Mutiny struck the Bulgarian army, whose will to fight was exhausted, and Entente forces rapidly advanced into Vardar Macedonia. On September 29, Serbian and French forces liberated Skopje, and Bulgaria capitulated.

The Bulgarian armistice allowed the Entente unopposed access to Bulgarian railways, and the Central Powers were driven into a decisive collapse on all fronts. German and Austro-Hungarian forces in the Balkans were greatly outnumbered and exposed, fleeing northward toward Hungary in defeat or forced withdrawal. The liberation of Belgrade on November 1, 1918, combined with domestic ethnic revolts and growing military mutiny, forced Austria-Hungary to an armistice on November 3.

Aftermath

The liberation of Serbia, along with the capitulation of Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, led to an unexpectedly quick end to World War I. Alone and facing imminent defeat, Germany agreed to an armistice on November 11, 1918. The liberation of Serbia also had significant political repercussions. On November 28, Serbia absorbed the Kingdom of Montenegro, and on December 1, it united with the newly created State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, forming the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia).

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